U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  ENTOMOLOGY— BULLETIN  NO.  S3. 

L.  O.  HOWARD,  Entomologist  and  Chief  of  But  -an. 


PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK 
AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 


BY 


L.  O.  HOWARD,  Ph.  D., 
Chief  of  Bureau. 


Issued  .Tine  20,  1910. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING     OFFICE 
1910. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  ENTOMOLOGY— BULLETIN  NO.  88. 

L.  O.  HOWARD,  Entomologist  and  Chief  of  Bureau. 


PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK 
AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 


BY 


L.  O.  HOWARD,  Ph.  Dv 

Chief  of  Bureau. 


Issued  June  20,  1910. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE 

1910. 


BUREAU  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

L.  O.  Howard,  Entomologist  and  Chief  of  Bureau. 

C.  L\  Marlatt,  Assistant  Entomologist  and  Acting  Chief  in  Absence  of  Chief. 

R.  S.  Clifton,  Executive  Assistant. 
W.  F.  Tastet,  Chief  Clerk. 

F.  H.  Chittenden,  in  charge  of  truck  crop  and  stored  product  insect  investigations. 

A.  D.  Hopkins,  in  charge  of  forest  insect  investigations. 

W.  D.  Hunter,  in  charge  of  southern  field  crop  insect  investigations. 

F.  M.  Webster,  in  charge  of  cereal  and  forage  insect  investigations. 

A.  L.  Quaintance,  in  charge  of  deciduous  fruit  insect  investigations. 

E.  F.  Phillips,  in  charge  of  bee  culture. 

D.  M.  Rogers,  in  charge  of  preventing  spread  of  moths,  field  work. 
Rolla  P.  Currie,  in  charge  of  editorial  work. 

Mabel  Colcord,  librarian. 
2 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Entomology, 

Washington,  D.  C,  March  29,  1910. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  the  manuscript  of  a 
bulletin  on  preventive  and  remedial  work  against  mosquitoes. 

It  is  my  hope,  with  your  approval,  to  follow  this  with  four  other 
bulletins  and  a  circular,  all  relating  to  mosquitoes,  and  to  prepare 
the  series  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  a  measurably  complete 
consideration  of  these  annoying  and  dangerous  insects  for  North 
America. 

I  respectfully  recommend  that  this  manuscript  be  published  as 
Bulletin  No. '88  of  this  Bureau. 
Respectfully, 

L.  O.  Howard, 
Entomologist  and  Chief  of  Bureau. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introduction 7 

Protection  from  bites 12 

Protective  liquids 12 

Screens  and  canopies 14 

Screening  breeding  places 18 

Abolition  of  breeding  places 19 

Deterrent  trees  and  plants 22 

Eucalyptus 22 

Castor-oil  plant 23 

Chinaberry  trees 25 

Other  plants 25 

Peat 27 

Water  plants 27 

Smudges  and  fumigants 30 

Pyrethrum  or  chrysanthemum 30 

Mimms  Culicide 33 

Pyrofume 34 

Sulphur  dioxid 35 

Other  fumigants 37 

Mercuric  chlorid 39 

Apparatus  for  catching  adult  mosquitoes 40 

Remedies  for  mosquito  bites 41 

Drainage  measures 42 

The  California  work 44 

The  New  Jersey  work 47 

The  value  of  reclaimed  lands 53 

General  reclamation  work 53 

Salt-marsh  lands  in  New  Jersey 59 

The  practical  use  of  natural  enemies  of  mosquitoes 62 

Salamanders,  dragonflies,  predaceous  mosquitoes,  and  fish 62 

Fish  introduced  into  Hawaii  to  abate  mosquitoes 68 

Fish  in  the  West  Indies 69 

Fish  in  German  East  Africa .' 70 

A  Brazilian  fish 71 

Mr.  Thibault's  observations 72 

Destruction  of  larvae 72 

Organization  for  community  work 80 

The  importance  of  interesting  children 86 

Recent  work  in  Germany 87 

Work  along  river  fronts  in  Egypt 88 

Examples  of  mosquito  exterminative  measures  in  different  parts  of  the  world 

and  of  the  sanitary  results  following  them 89 

Federated  Malay  States 89 

The  work  in  Habana  during  the  American  occupation,  1901-2 92 

5 


6  CONTENTS. 

Examples  of  mosquito  exterminative  measures,  etc. — Continued.  Page. 

Work  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 93 

Work  in  Rio  de  Janeiro 95 

Work  in  Algeria 98 

Work  in  Ismailia 100 

Work  in  Veracruz 100 

Work  in  Japan 102 

Antimosquito  work  in  other  parts  of  the  world 104 

Conclusion 114 

Index 117 


PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST 
MOSQUITOES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

For  many  centuries  humanity  has  endured  the  anno}Tance  of  mos- 
quitoes without  making  any  intelligent  effort  to  prevent  it  except 
in  the  use  of  smudges,  preparations  applied  to  the  skin,  and  in  re- 
moval from  localities  of  abundance.  And  it  is  only  within  compara- 
tively recent  years  that  widespread  community  work  against  mos- 
quitoes has  been  undertaken,  this  having  resulted  almost  directly 
from  the  discoveries  concerning  the  carriage  of  disease  by  these 
insects. 

As  obvious  a  procedure  as  it  might  seem  to  be,  the  abolition  of 
mosquito-breeding  places  is  a  comparatively  new  idea.  The  treat- 
ment of  breeding  places  with  oil  to  destroy  the  larval  forms  is,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  recent.  As  early  as  1812  the  writer  of  a  work 
published  in  London  entitled  "Omniana  or  Horae  Otiosiores"  sug- 
gested that  by  pouring  oil  upon  water  the  number  of  mosquitoes 
may  be  diminished.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  kerosene  was  used  in  France  in  this  way,  while  in  the  French 
quarter  in  New  Orleans  oil  was  placed  in  water  tanks  before  the 
civil  war,  the  idea  having  possibly  come  from  France  to  New  Orleans 
or  vice  versa. 

Another  early  recommendation  of  the  use  of  oil  was  given  by  an 
anonymous  writer  in  the  Magazin  Pittoresque,a  in  an  article  on  the 
"Mosquito  and  Its  Metamorphoses."  The  phraseology  translated 
into  English  is  as  follows : 

When  one  has  recognized  that  the  ponds  or  ditches  existing  close  to  houses  are 
swarming  with  the  larvse  of  mosquitoes,  one  can  immediately  destroy  this  dangerous 
race  by  spreading  on  the  surface  a  little  oil,  which  extends  in  a  very  thin  film  and 
prevents  the  little  insects  from  coming  up  to  breathe.  This  proceeding  is  especially 
easy  to  put  into  practice  upon  the  irrigating  tanks  in  gardens,  since  it  is  in  such  places 
that  the  greatest  number  of  mosquitoes  develop. 

Again,  quite  recently,  Mr.  John  P.  Fort,  of  Athens,  Ga.,  has  com- 
municated to  the  writer  that  about  the  year  1854,  while  his  father, 
Dr.  Thomlinson  Fort,  was  physician  to  the  penitentiary  at  Milledge- 
ville,  Ga.,  a  place  of  about  2,000  people,  the  institution  had  become 
so  infested  with  mosquitoes  as  to  cause  much  complaint.     Doctor 

a  Vol.  15,  pp.  178-182,  1846. 


8  PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Fort  had  the  matter  investigated,  and  it  was  found  that  the  mos- 
quitoes originated  in  the  tan  vats  of  a  tanyard  in  the  penitentiary 
and  in  a  large  cistern  attached  to  the  livery  stable  in  the  city. 
He  ordered  oil  to  be  put  upon  the  water  in  the  tan  vats  and  xhe 
mosquitoes  were  destroyed. 

In  1892  some  exact  experimentation  was  undertaken  by  the 
writer  in  Green  County,  X.  Y.,  which  indicated  the  amount  of  kero- 
sene necessar}"  for  a  given  water  surface,  and  the  duration  of  effi- 
ciency. These  experiments  also  showed  that  adult  mosquitoes  are 
captured  by  a  kerosene  film — that  is  to  say,  adult  females  alighting 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  eggs  or  for 
drinking  are  destroyed  by  the  kerosene  before  the  eggs  are  laid. 
The  account  of  these  experiments,  published  in  Insect  Life,a  attracted 
much  attention  by  persons  interested  and  received  extended  news- 
paper notices,  from  which  it  resulted  that  practical  work  on  a  larger 
or  smaller  scale  was  carried  on  with  success  by  H.  E.  Weed,  at  the 
Mississippi  Agricultural  College;  by  Dr.  John  B.  Smith,  on  Long 
Island;  by  Prof.  V.  L.  Kellogg,  on  the  campus  of  the  Stanford  Uni- 
versity of  California;  by  Rev.  John  D.  Long,  at  Oak  Island  Beach, 
Long  Island  Sound;  by  Mr.  W.  R.  Hopson,  near  Stratford,  Conn.; 
by  Mr.  R.  M.  Reese,  in  Baltimore;  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Kerr,  on  Staten 
Island;  by  Mr.  M.J.  Wightman,  at  an  Atlantic  coast  resort;  and  by 
Dr.  St.  George  Gray,  in  the  British  West  Indies.  The  publication 
of  the  extensive  mosquito  article  in  the  bulletin  on  household  insects  b 
by  the  writer  and  Mr.  Marlat t  intensified  this  interest,  and  was  pro- 
ductive of  other  successful  work. 

With  the  discovery  of  the  disease-bearing  relation  of  mosquitoes, 
first  with  malaria  and  next  with  yellow  fever,  public  interest  in  their 
destruction  became  intensified,  and  large-scale  remedial  work  was 
done  at  many  points.  Bulletin  No.  25, c  by  the  writer,  devoted  con- 
siderable space  to  the  subject  of  remedies,  and  indicated  in  the  main 
those  remedies  which  are  of  use  to-day  and  are  to  be  recommended 
upon  a  sound  basis  of  practical  experimentation.  It  is  probably 
unfortunate  that  the  writer  in  this  bulletin  laid  so  much  stress  upon 
the  use  of  petroleum  as  to  obscure  in  a  way  the  much  more  vital 
measures  of  thorough  drainage  and  the  complete  abolition  of  breed- 
ing places;  but  the  idea  that  was  prominent  in  his  mind  at  the  time 
the  bulletin  was  written  was  "Let  us  stop  mosquito  breeding  at 
once  in  an  economical  way,  and  then  let  us  take  our  time  in  more 
expensive,  more  elaborate,,  and  more  radical  measures."  The  same 
criticism  can  be  made  and  the  same  partial,  though  by  no  means 

a  Vol.  5,  No.  1,  pp.  12-14,  September,  1892. 

b  Bui.  4,  n.  s.,  Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1896. 

cBul.  25,  n.  s.,  Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1900. 


INTRODUCTION.  U 

satisfactory,  explanation  in  the  ease  of  a  book  entitled  "Mosquitoes,"" 
published  in  the  spring  of  1901;  but  both  bulletin  and  book  served 
a  good  purpose,  and  together  undoubtedly  helped  to  start,  to  a  great 
measure,  the  antimosquito  work  which  has  since  been  carried  on  in 
the  United  States. 

Practically  beginning  with  1901,  there  has  been  a  rather  rapid  in- 
crease in  antimosquito  work  by  individuals  and  communities,  but 
this  work  has  not  progressed  with  anything  like  the  rapidity  demanded 
by  the  distressing  conditions  of  many  localities  and  in  fact  of  great 
areas.  Yet  it  is  probably  accurate  to  state  that  more  effective  work 
of  this  kind  has  been  done  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other 
country.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  greater  prevalence  of  mosqui- 
toes in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  highly  civilized  country, 
but  the  well-known  practical  character  of  the  American  people  is 
also  an  element. 

During  the  summer  of  1900  Mr.  W.  J.  Matheson  carried  on  some 
admirable  antimosquito  work  at  his  large  place  at  Lloyds  Neck,  Long 
Island,  N.  Y.  This  work  was  thoroughly  done  and  was  most  success- 
ful, no  mosquitoes  breeding  where  they  had  previously  swarmed  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  render  the  localities  uninhabitable.  In  the 
autumn  of  1900  there  was  a  migration  of  salt-marsh  mosquitoes  to 
Lloyds  Neck  from  salt  marshes  bordering  on  Center  Island.  Mr. 
Matheson  induced  the  practical  residents  of  Center  Island  to  take  up 
extensive  work  during  the  summer  of  1901,  and  this  work  was  carried 
through  in  a  very  perfect  manner  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Weeks,  engineer  in 
charge,  and  was  described  in  the  Century  Magazine  for  July,  1902. 
In  the  summer  of  1901  was  also  begun  by  far  the  largest  piece  of 
work  as  yet  undertaken.  It  originated  on  the  "Northern  Shore"  of 
Long  Island,  in  the  regions,  between  Hempstead  Harbor  and  Cold 
Spring  Harbor,  and  was  carried  on  under  the  auspices  of  the  North 
Shore  Improvement  Association,  a  group  of  wealthy  and  prominent 
residents  of  this  part  of  the  island.  The  work  during  the  summer  of 
1901  included  an  almost  microscopic  survey  of  the  region  and  the 
preparation  of  a  map  showing  the  breeding  places  of  the  several  kinds 
of  mosquitoes.  It  included  also  the  preparation  of  reports  by  ento- 
mological experts,  a  report  by  Professor  Shaler,  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, on  marsh  areas  and  related  subjects;  an  account  of  the  work 
done  on  Center  Island  during  1901;  and  engineering  reports,  includ- 
ing recommendations  for  treatment,  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Weeks.  A  volume 
was  published  in  the  spring  of  1902  entitled  "Reports  on  Mosquitoes, 
with  Map,"6  which  forms  a  very  sound  basis  for  thorough  ocean-shore 
community  work  for  some  time  to  come.  Following  the  survey  of 
the  work  by  the  North  Shore  Improvement  Association  in  1901  there 
were  carried  on  by  private  individuals  and  by  the  association  in  1902 

a  "Mosquitoes."     By  L.  O.  Howard.     1901.  &  New  York,  1902. 


10         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

certain  remedial  and  preventive  operations.  One  of  the  most  inter- 
esting of  this  series  was  performed  on  the  estate  of  Mr.  W.  D.  Guthrie. 
By  means  of  a  dike  and  a  sluice  gate  a  large  marsh  area  was  drained, 
and  the  breeding  of  the  salt-marsh  mosquitoes  was  stopped.  A 
stretch  of  75  acres  of  land  was  reclaimed  and  the  soil  was  disintegrated 
and  properly  treated,  with  the  result  that  cabbages,  turnips,  and 
celery  were  grown  at  the  close  of  the  summer  of  1902. 

The  year  of  1902  was  also  marked  by  the  first  effort  to  secure  anti- 
mosquito  legislation  from  one  of  the  United  States.  The  state  ento- 
mologist of  New  Jersey,  Dr.  John  B.  Smith,  backed  by  an  intelligent 
public  sentiment,  tried  to  secure  the  passage  of  a  bill  by  the  state 
legislature  during  the  winter  of  1901-2,  appropriating  $10,000  for 
the  purpose  of  investigating  the  possibilities  of  the  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  the  salt-marsh  mosquito  and  other  kinds  of  mosquitoes.  The 
bill  passed  one  branch  of  the  legislature,  but  failed  in  the  other 
branch.  The  governor  of  the  State,  however,  was  able  in  other  ways 
to  provide  Doctor  wSmith  with  a  limited  sum  to  carry  on  researches. 
In  this  work  he  discovered  a  number  of  most  interesting  and  vitally 
important  facts  concerning  breeding  habits  of  the  salt-marsh  mos- 
quitoes, indicating  that  the  breeding  places  of  these  species  are  more 
or  less  circumscribed,  and  that  the  matter  of  control  is  by  no  means 
as  expensive  as  it  appears  at  first  sight,  and  it  was  these  discoveries 
that  eventually  led  to  the  passage  of  the  law  which  will  be  mentioned 
later. 

Admirable  community  work  was  taken  up  during  1901-2  by  cer- 
tain New  Jersey  towns,  notably  South  Orange,  Elizabeth,  Montclair, 
Monmouth  Beach,  and  Summit.  Independent  work  was  begun  in 
Greater  New  York  under  Doctor  Lederle,  and  the  mapping  of  mos- 
quito breeding  places  within  city  limits  was  begun.  Independently, 
the  health  officers  of  Brooklyn,  Jamaica,  and  Bronx  Borough  began 
efficient  work,  while  the  summer  resorts  of  Arverne  and  Woodmere 
reduced  the  mosquito  supply  by  intelligent  operations.  At  Willets 
Point  intelligent  and  efficient  work  was  carried  out  on  a  small  scale. 
In  Massachusetts  interesting  and  important  work  was  done  at  Brook- 
line  and  at  Worcester.  In  Brookline  the  board  of  health  first  consid- 
ered the  work  in  August,  1901,  and  in  September  all  the  breeding 
places  of  the  malaria  mosquito  and  of  the  other  mosquitoes  were 
treated.  In  1902  all  pools,  ponds,  ditches,  and  other  breeding  places, 
including  catch-basins,  were  located  on  the  town  map.  The  approxi- 
mate areas  were  determined  and  the  number  of  catch-basins  ascer- 
tained. Breeding  places  of  Culex  and  Anopheles,  respectively,  were 
determined,  and  also  the  places  where  both  the  species  were  breed- 
ing— this  being  done  in  order  to  ascertain  the  proper  intervals  for 
treatment;  that  is,  whether  every  two  weeks  or  every  three  weeks. 
Public  dumps  and  other  places  where  accidental  receptacles  of  water 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

might  be  found  were  also  located  on  the  maps.  Light  fuel  oil  was 
used  on  all  breeding  places.  The  public  dumps  were  found  to  be 
very  important  in  the  work,  since  many  accidental  receptacles,  like 
bottles,  cans,  wooden  and  tin  boxes,  and  the  like,  were  to  be  found. 
Where  these  were  breakable,  they  were  simply  broken;  when  not, 
they  were  carried  and  dumped  into  pools  to  assist  in  rilling  these. 

This  Brookline  work  was  so  thorough  that  the  community  was 
greatly  relieved  from  the  mosquito  pest,  although  in  the  autumn 
some  low  meadows  near  the  town,  where  drainage  work  had  been 
postponed,  were  found  to  be  breeding  mosquitoes  in  great  numbers. 

At  Worcester  the  work  was  of  the  most  interesting  kind.  Dr.  Wil- 
liam McKibben  and  Dr.  C.  F.  Hodge  started  the  crusade.  Breeding 
places  were  mapped  and  photographed  and  public  lectures  were 
given.  The  school  children  of  the  several  grades  were  interested  and 
were  organized  into  searching  parties.  Many  breeding  places  were 
filled,  and  others  were  treated  with  kerosene.  A  strong  point  was 
made  in  Worcester,  by  those  engaged  in  the  crusade,  by  the  preva- 
lence of  malaria  in  many  places  in  the  city.  The  relation  between 
the  mosquito-breeding  places  and  the  houses  where  there  were  ma- 
laria patients  was  effectively  pointed  out,  and  a  map  was  prepared 
showing  the  exact  distribution  of  malaria  in  the  city,  and  photographs 
were  made  showing  the  character  of  the  breeding  places  of  the  malaria 
mosquito.  It  is  probable  that  these  Worcester  efforts  to  interest  the 
school  children  were  the  first  made  in  this  direction,  although  the 
idea  was  carried  out  to  a  much  greater  extent  later  in  San  Antonio, 
Tex.,  under  Doctor  Lankford,  as  will  be  pointed  out  on  subsequent 
pages.  Other  work  during  the  summer  was  carried  on  at  Pine 
Orchard  and  Ansonia,  Conn.,  at  Old  Orchard  Beach,  in  Maine,  and  on 
the  campus  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  in  Michigan.  Strong 
efforts  were  made  during  the  summer  to  start  work  at  Baltimore, 
but  for  a  time  the  city  council  refused  to  make  appropriations.  At 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  the  sanitary  department  used  a  large  amount  of  kero- 
sene in  the  stagnant  pools  and  swampy  places  around  the  city,  and 
warned  the  citizens  to  watch  their  rain  barrels  and  keep  their  gutters 
open.  A  great  many  pools  of  water  were  drained,  and  in  the  negro 
quarters  of  the  city  the  sanitary  inspectors  were  constantly  on  the 
lookout  for  standing  water  in  buckets  and  other  chance  receptacles. 
The  matter  was  taken  up  with  the  county  commissioners,  and  the 
area  of  preventive  measures  was  extended  toward  the  close  of  the 
season.  In  Savannah  some  work  was  done,  and  the  number  of  mos- 
quitoes reduced  very  considerably.  Oil  was  used  diligently  by  the 
sewer-cleaning  forces,  and  was  placed  in  the  catch-basins.  So  great 
was  the  relief  that  many  people  in  Savannah  for  the  first  time  used 
no  mosquito  bars.  At  Talladega,  Ala.,  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
B.  B.  Simms,  antimosquito  work  was  commenced  early  in  the  season, 


12         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

and  was  carried  out  systematically  and  thoroughly.  No  place  that 
could  possibly  prove  a  breeding  place  was  overlooked.  The  applica- 
tion of  kerosene  was  repeated  several  times  during  the  year.  St. 
Louis  took  up  the  work  early  in  July,  and  the  municipal  assembly 
made  an  appropriation  for  supplies.  The  health  department,  how- 
ever, was  hampered  for  lack  of  men,  and  little  work  was  done. 

Such  were  the  early  steps  in  the  mosquito  crusade  in  this  country. 
Many  other  communities  have  taken  up  the  work  since  1902.  Some, 
through  inefficient  work,  have  allowed  their  efforts  to  lapse,  and  have 
become  more  or  less  indifferent.  Others  have  gone  ahead  and  have 
spent  considerable  sums  of  money  in  their  mosquito  fight. 

In  the  early  days  of  mosquito  warfare  there  was  great  indifference 
combined  with  incredulity  as  to  the  danger  from  mosquitoes,  even 
among  the  medical  profession,  and  particularly  in  the  South.  This 
indifference  and  incredulity,  however,  have  now,  for  the  most  part, 
passed  away.  Boards  of  health  very  generally  appreciate  the  desir- 
ability of  antimosquito  work,  and  as  rapidly  as  town  councils  can  be 
induced  to  appropriate  the  necessary  funds  the  work  is  going  ahead. 

Excellent  antimosquito  work  has  been  carried  on  during  the  past 
few  years  in  Honolulu,  backed  by  rather  modest  funds,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  then  entomologist  of  the  Hawaiian  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Dr.  D.  L.  Van  Dine.  In  Porto  Rico  some  work  is  being  done, 
as  well  as  in  the  Philippines,  under  the  United  States  Government. 
In  Cuba  and  in  Panama  the  work  has  been  of  a  standard  character 
and  the  operations  at  these  points  will  be  more  fully  mentioned  in 
subsequent  paragraphs. 

In  other  parts  of  the  world  many  striking  examples  of  the  value  of 
antimosquito  work  have  been  shown  comparatively  recently,  and 
several  of  these  will  be  detailed  later. 

PROTECTION  FROM  BITES. 

PROTECTIVE    LIQUIDS. 

A  number  of  different  substances  have  been  in  use  to  rub  upon  the 
skin  or  to  put  near  the  bed  as  a  protection  from  mosquitoes.  Spirits 
of  camphor  rubbed  upon  the  face  and  hands,  or  a  few  drops  on  the 
pillow  at  night,  wall  keep  away  mosquitoes  for  a  time,  and  this  is  also 
a  well-known  property  of  oil  of  pennyroyal.  Oil  of  peppermint, 
lemon  juice,  and  vinegar  have  all  been  recommended  for  use  as  protec- 
tors against  mosquitoes,  while  oil  of  tar  has  been  used  in  bad  mos- 
quito localities.  A  mixture  recommended  by  Mr.  E.  H.  Gane,  of 
New  York,  is  the  following:    . 

Castor  oil ounce..  1 

Alcohol '. do 1 

Oil  of  lavender do 1 


PROTECTION   FROM   BITES.  13 

The  oil  of  citronella  has  come  into  very  general  use  in  the  United 
States  in  the  past  few  years.  The  odor  is  objectionable  to  some  people, 
but  not  to  many,  and  it  is  efficient  in  keeping  away  mosquitoes  for 
several  hours.  A  mixture  recommended  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Nash,  of  New 
York,  composed  of  1  ounce  oil  of  citronella,  1  ounce  spirits  of  cam- 
phor, and  one-half  ounce  oil  of  cedar,  has  been  the  most  efficacious 
mixture  tried  by  the  writer.  Ordinarily  a  few  drops  on  a  bath  towel 
hung  over  the  head  of  the  bed  will  keep  Culex  pipiens  away  for  a 
whole  night.  Where  mosquitoes  are  very  persistent,  however,  a  few 
drops  rubbed  on  the  face  and  hands  will  suffice.  This  mixture,  in 
the  experience  of  the  writer,  has  been  effective  against  all  mosquitoes 
except  Aedes  (Stegomyia)  calopus,  the  yellow-fever  mosquito.  This 
mosquito  begins  to  trouble  the  sleeper  at  daybreak,  and  by  that  time 
the  potency  of  the  mixture  has  largely  passed,  and  one  is  apt  to  be 
in  his  soundest  sleep.  If,  however,  one  could  arrange  to  be  awakened 
just  before  daybreak  and  apply  the  mixture,  returning  for  the  last 
nap,  it  is  probable  that  it  would  be  efficacious. 

Fishermen  and  hunters  in  the  north  woods  will  find  that  a  good 
mixture  against  mosquitoes  and  black  flies  can  be  made  as  follows: 
Take  2  J  pounds  of  mutton  tallow  and  strain  it.  While  still  hot  add 
one-half  pound  black  tar  (Canadian  tar),  stir  thoroughly,  and  pour 
into  the  receptacle  in  which  it  is  to  be  contained.  When  nearly  cool 
stir  in  3  ounces  of  oil  of  citronella  and  1J  ounces  of  pennyroyal. 

Oscar  Samostz,  of  Austin,  Tex.,  recommends  the  following  formula: 

Oil  of  citronella ounce . .   1 

Liquid  vaseline ounces . .  4 

Apply  freely  to  exposed  parts. 

Doctor  Durham,  of  the  English  Yellow  Fever  Commission,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  told  the  writer  that  he  and  the  late  Doctor  Myers  found  that 
a  5  per  cent  solution  of  sulphate  of  potash  prevented  mosquitoes  from 
biting,  and  that  they  were  obliged  to  use  this  mixture  while  at  work 
in  their  laboratory  in  Brazil  to  prevent  themselves  from  being  badly 
bitten. 

An  anonymous  correspondent  of  American  Medicine,  who  signs 
himself  F.  A.  H.,  says: 

I  would  advise  the  use  of  the  oil  of  cassia,  for  the  odor  is  not  offensive  to  human  be- 
ings and  it  is  an  irritant  poison  to  all  kinds  of  insects.  Besides,  its  power  remains  for 
a  long  time  after  it  has  dried. 

Pure  kerosene  has  been  used  for  this  same  purpose.  An  excellent 
example  of  its  practical  use  came  to  the  writer  in  a  letter  from  Dr. 
W.  H.  Dade,  an  army  surgeon,  writing  from  the  Philippine  Islands 
under  date  of  November  15,  1901. 

He  stated  that  during  November,  1900,  while  traveling  up  the 
Cagayan  River  on  the  steamer  Raleigh,  they  were  bothered  greatly 
by  mosquitoes  both  during  the  day  and  night,  Culex  and  Anopheles 


14         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

both  being  present  and  breeding  in  fire  buckets  along  the  sides  of  the 
vessel.  The  buckets  were  teeming  with  larvae.  They  did  not  seem 
to  have  thought  of  putting  kerosene  on  the  buckets  in  order  to  stop 
the  breeding,  but  at  the  suggestion  of  Doctor  Dade  a  rag  was  sat- 
urated with  kerosene,  the  face,  hands,  and  feet  were  smeared  with  it, 
and  the  rag  was  put  where  it  could  be  conveniently  reached.  When 
aroused  from  sleep  by  mosquitoes  another  application  was  made. 
"Those  who  had  not  used  these  means  before  seemed  perfectly  sur- 
prised at  the  splendid  immunity  gained.  The  odor  and  the  greasy 
feeling  imparted  were  the  only  drawbacks  to  its  use."  Doctor  Dade 
continued  to  experiment  with  this  remedy  after  his  return  from  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  capture  General  Aguinaldo,  and  found  that  the 
addition  of  1  part  oil  of  bergamot  to  16  of  kerosene  imparted  an  odor 
scarcely  objectionable,  and  at  the  same  time  added  sufficient  body 
to  the  kerosene  to  prevent  evaporation  in  less  than  six  to  eight  hours. 
After  that,  when  the  soldiers  had  to  leave  the  post,  and  after  it  became 
impracticable  to  carry  cans  with  them  in  the  field  for  a  long  or  pro- 
tracted march,  this  mixture  was  used,  with  the  result  that  the  list  of 
malarial  patients  was  noticeably  shortened.  The  oil  of  bergamot 
was  hard  to  obtain  and  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  wholesale,  but  the 
soldiers  rarely  objected  to  the  odor  of  kerosene  and  the  bergamot  was 
not  continued. 

In  moist  tropical  regions  where  one  perspires  profusely,  the  oily 
mixtures  considered  under  this  heading  applied  to  the  skin  are 
transient  in  their  effects.  Under  these  circumstances  they  should 
be  applied  rather  liberally  to  the  clothing,  particularly  about  the 
neck  and  wrists. 

SCREENS    AND    CANOPIES. 

Such  obvious  measures  as  the  screening  of  houses,  the  use  of  net- 
ting for  beds,  and  the  wearing  of  veils  and  gloves  after  nightfall  in 
badly  infested  regions,  need  no  consideration  in  detail.  But  even  in 
such  an  apparently  simple  matter  as  house  screening  certain  points 
must  be  taken  into  consideration.  It  may  be  incidentally  stated  that 
with  proper  treatment  of  breeding  places  screening  is  unnecessary. 
The  expense  to  which  the  people  of  the  United  States  go  for  screens 
against  mosquitoes  and  flies  is  enormous,  and  has  been  estimated  at 
$10,000,000  annually.  If  this  expense  were  at  all  necessary  it  should 
surely  be  thoroughly  done. 

In  screening  a  house,  as  Dr.  John  B.  Smith  has  pointed  out  in  his 
Bulletin  No.  216  of  the  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
the  attempts  frequently  fall  far  short  of  protection : 

Adjustable,  folding,  or  sliding  screens  are  never  tight,  and  when  the  insects  really 
want  to  get  indoors  they  work  their  way  patiently  between  the  two  parts  of  the  screen 
or  between  its  frames  and  the  window.  But  even  a  well-fitted  screen  either  sets  tightly 
into  the  frame  or,  running  like  a  sash,  may  offer  leaks  when  a  window  is  only  partly 


PROTECTION    FROM   BITES.  15 

opened.  *  *  *  There  is  abundant  opportunity  for  the  insect  to  get  in  between  the 
net  and  lower  cross  bar;  in  fact,  there  is  no  real  protection  at  all.  Where  the  netting 
is  fixed  to  the  outside  of  its  frame,  so  that  there  is  no  space  between  it  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  sash,  the  insects  nevertheless  find  their  way  in  between  the  window  sashes. 
*  *  *  It  has  been  already  said  that  the  mosquitoes  will,  in  certain  seasons,  attempt 
to  make  their  way  through  the  screens,  and  they  have  less  trouble  with  wire  netting 
than  with  any  other  because  the  meshes  are  even  in  size  and  the  strands  smooth. 
Some  of  the  fabrics  used  for  nettings,  especially  of  the  cheaper  grades,  have  the  threads 
so  fuzzy  that  it  is  simply  impossible  for  the  mosquitoes  to  make  their  way  through, 
and  they  rarely  even  try  it  except  where  there  is  a  tear,  or  where  the  threads  have  been 
spread  apart  leaving  an  unusually  large  opening.  Where  an  onslaught  is  made  on  wire 
netting  it  can  be  checked  by  painting  lightly  with  kerosene  or  oil  of  citronella.  I  have 
tried  both  and  found  them  successful. 

In  addition  to  these  mechanical  difficulties  it  often  happens  that 
the  cellar  and  attic  windows  of  houses  are  not  screened.  This  is  a 
great  mistake,  since  mosquitoes  will  enter  these  windows  and  pass  the 
winter  in  both  cellars  and  attics. 

With  regard  to  bed  canopies  there  is  reason  for  the  greatest  care. 
There  should  be  ample  material  to  admit  of  a  perfect  folding  of  the 
canopy  under  the  mattress,  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  fabric  well  mended.  It  often  happens  in  mosquito  regions 
that  little  care  is  taken  of  the  bed  nettings  in  the  poorer  hotels,  and  it 
is  necessary  for  perfect  protection  that  a  traveler  in  the  Southern 
States  should  carry  with  him  a  pocket  housewife  and  should  carefully 
examine  his  bed  netting  every  night,  prepared  to  mend  all  tears  and 
expanded  meshes. 

Veils  and  nettings  for  camping  in  the  Tropics  are  absolute  neces- 
saries. Light  frames  are  made  to  fit  helmetlike  over  the  head  and 
are  covered  with  mosquito  netting.  Similar  frames  readily  folded 
into  a  compact  form  are  made  to  form  a  bed  covering  at  night,  and 
every  camping  outfit  for  work  in  tropical  or  malarial  regions  should 
possess  such  framework  and  plenty  of  mosquito  netting  as  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  outfit. 

An  illustrated  advertisement  in  Ross's  admirable  Mosquito  Brigades 
shows  a  folding-hood  mosquito  net  especially  for  the  use  of  travelers 
when  taking  rest.  This  is  6 J  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  high. 
It  is  a  frame  arrangement  which  can  be  opened  by  the  traveler  so 
as  to  envelop  liimself  when  he  is  lying  down.  The  frame  is  easily 
carried  in  the  hand,  being  only  40  inches  long  by  4  inches  in  diameter 
when  folded.  There  is  also  given  an  illustration  of  a  small,  compact 
mosquito  house  for  use  by  travelers  while  writing,  reading,  or  taking 
their  meals.  It  is  large  enough  to  contain  two  persons  seated,  and 
is  constructed  with  a  frame  which  is  easily  portable.  The  frames 
are  manufactured  by  a  firm  of  surgical-instrument  makers  in  Liver- 
pool. No  doubt  other  apparatus  of  the  same  kind  is  manufactured 
and  to  be  purchased  at  large  outfitting  establishments,  such  as 
the  army  and  navy  stores  in  London. 


16         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Some  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  subject  of  the  size  of  the  mesh 
of  screens  with  especial  reference  to  the  yellow-fever  mosquito. 
Working  party  No.  2  of  the  Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital 
Service,  at  Veracruz,  conducted  a  few  experiments  to  determine 
the  question  of  the  size  of  the  mesh.  Their  experiments  were  con- 
ducted by  placing  screens  with  a  varying  number  of  meshes  to  the 
inch  over  breeding  jars  and  putting  bananas,  sirup,  and  other  food 
on  the  other  side  so  as  to  tempt  the  hungry  mosquitoes  to  pass 
through.  The  fruit  and  other  food  was  placed  in  a  jar  which  was 
inverted  over  the  mosquito-breeding  jar,  and  a  piece  of  gauze  or  net- 
ting was  inserted  between  the  two  jars  so  that  the  mosquitoes  would 
have  to  pass  through  the  meshes  in  order  to  appear  in  the  upper  jar. 
As  a  result  it  was  found  that  both  males  and  females  passed  through 
a  netting  containing  16  strands  or  15  meshes  to  the  inch,  but  could 
not  pass  20  strands  or  19  meshes  to  the  inch.  It  therefore  became 
evident  to  these  observers  that  the  large-meshed  mosquito  bars  ordi- 
narily used  in  Veracruz  would  not  offer  proper  protection  and  that 
window  screening  must  also  be  of  a  finer  wire  than  is  sometimes 
employed. 

Goeldi  refers  to  this  screen  question,  both  in  regard  to  the  yellow- 
fever  mosquito  and  to  the  common  rain-water-barrel  mosquito,  in 
connection  with  some  very  interesting  observations  about  the  range 
of  variation  in  the  size  of  the  individuals  of  the  same  species,  a  fact 
which  is  frequently  noticed  with  other  insects  but  to  which  special 
attention  has  not  been  called  elsewhere  with  mosquitoes. 

Frequently  I  have  observed,  both  in  Stegomyia  fasciata  and  in  Culex  fatigans, 
alongside  of  individuals  of  normal  stature  individuals  very  much  smaller — veritable 
dwarfs.  This  observation  may  be  made  on  specimens  captured  in  freedom  as  well 
as  on  those  in  captivity,  in  this  last  case  the  phenomenon  repeating  itself  rather 
frequently.  There  are  sometimes  born  individuals,  both  males  and  females,  so 
small  that  they  easily  pass  through  the  mesh  of  wire  gauze  much  closer  than  the  mesh 
of  "Grassi's  gauze"  which  to-day  is  produced  on  a  large  scale  in  Italy  with  a  view  to 
the  prophylaxis  against  the  Anopheles  and  malaria  (Grassi,  himself,  recommends  a 
gauze  that  shall  not  have  less  than  nine  meshes  in  \\  centimeters  of  distance,  which 
corresponds  to  little  linear  squares  1.7  mm.  to  the  side).  The  government  of  the 
State  of  Para  imported  for  my  experiments  from  Italy  under  this  name  a  gauze  which 
had  but  six  threads  to  1J  centimeters  of  linear  extension,  corresponding  to  squares  of 
2 J  mm.  along  one  side.  I  refer  particularly  to  this  last  brand,  which  I  consider  suffi- 
cient as  a  rule  for  application  to  hospitals  to  impede  the  invasion  of  mosquitoes  from 
the  outside,  but  which  I  found,  nevertheless,  insufficient  for  the  walls  of  my  cages 
destined  for  experiments  on  mosquitoes  like  Stegomyia  fasciata  and  Culex  fatigans  in 
captivity. 

In  general,  the  phenomena  of  macrosomia  and  microsomia  in  plants  and  animals 
are  related  directly  with  greater  or  less  abundant  nutrition,  and  I  do  not  believe  that 
the  quoted  dwarf  race  of  Stegomyia  and  Culex  is  to  be  explained  in  any  other  way 
than  by  a  sparse  alimentation  and  a  delayed  development  in  the  larval  stage.  On 
this  point  I  have  at  hand  experiments  in  proof:  Larvae  reared  in  clear  water — that 
is  to  say,  relatively  poor  in  assimilable  substances — gave  me  imagos  of  small  stature. 
Furthermore,  it  is  yet  to  be  shown    that  I  am  deceived  in  my  opinion  that  the 


PROTECTION   FROM   BITES.  17 

frequency  of  dwarf  individuals  captured  in  freedom  is  not  notably  greater  at  certain 
periods,  assuming  almost  the  character  of  a  rule.  Thus  this  year  [1905],  in  the  last 
weeks  of  October  and  November,  before  we  entered  fully  upon  the  rainy  season,  I 
got  the  impression  that  the  females  of  dwarf  dimensions  were  particularly  numer- 
ous. I  doubt  that  this  is  the  work  of  a  mere  accident;  it  is  very  possible  that 
the  frequency  of  dwarf  individuals,  normally  possible  during  the  whole  year,  may  be 
periodic  and  represent  a  case,  somewhat  diminished,  of  what  is  called  in  entomology 
M  dimorphism  of  seasons."  Theoretically  there  can  be  no  serious  obstacle  in  accepting 
the  argument  that  in  the  height  of  the  dry  season,  with  the  growing  lack  of  water, 
the  conditions  of  life  for  the  larvie  become  more  difficult,  thus  favoring  the  generation 
of  mosquitoes  below  the  normal  dimensions.  Impoverished  water  and  reduced  food 
may  really,  as  we  have  seen  above,  oblige  the  larva  to  take  two  or  three  times  the  period 
normally  necessary  for  its  development  and  to  acquire  the  necessary  growth  for  its 
metamorphosis.  I  have  the  feeling  that  hibernation,  in  the  sense  in  which  this  word 
is  accepted  in  zoologic  literature,  may  well  for  the  tropical  and  equatorial  Culicidae 
find  its  expression  in  two  ways:  (1)  Delayed  development  of  the  larvae;  (2)  dwarfed 
stature  of  the  imagos. 

[Xote  by  translator. — Doctor  Goeldi  enters  into  long  explanation  as  to  hibernation, 
evidently  for  the  benefit  of  equatorial  readers  who  might  accuse  him  of  the  mal-use 
of  technical  terms.  He  refers  to  the  phenomenon  of  "seasonal  lethargy"  and  en- 
deavors to  trace  a  connection  between  the  circumstances  favoring  the  development 
of  the  perfect  insects  in  parallelism  with  the  "periodicity  of  yellow  fever."  His 
final  paragraph  is  as  follows:] 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  believe  that  these  dwarf  individuals  of  Stegomyia  are 
less  aggressive  and  sanguinary  than  those  of  normal  stature.  They  behave  in  a  pre- 
cisely similar  manner;  their  bites  are  not  less  painful,  as  I  have  had  frequent  occasion 
to  prove. 

A  study  of  the  question  of  mosquito  bars  or  canopies,  both  for 
indoors  and  out-of-doors,  has  been  made  by  Dr.  F.  Arnold,  the 
district  medical  officer  of  health,  northern  Transvaal,  and  he  has 
published  an  interesting  article  on  the  subject  in  the  Transvaal 
Agricultural  Journal  for  October,  1907,  pages  13-15.  He  illustrates 
the  mesh  of  different  nettings  purchased  in  Pretoria,  labeling  a  netting 
with  a  mesh  1  mm.  in  width  as  good,  one  of  2  mm.  as  doubtful,  and 
one  of  3  mm.  as  bad.  These  nettings  were  tested  by  stretching 
them  over  the  mouths  of  three  large  pill  boxes,  and  in  each  pill  box 
was  put  a  known  number  of  live,  uninjured  mosquitoes.  The  boxes 
were  placed  on  a  chair  alongside  his  bed,  where  they  remained  all 
night,  with  the  idea  that  by  placing  the  mosquitoes  near  a  sleeper 
they  would  be  anxious  to  get  at  him,  and  the  natural  conditions 
existing  in  a  bedroom  would  be  imitated;  that  is,  there  would  be  a 
mosquito  and  a  sleeper  separated  by  a  net.  The  conclusions  were 
those  above  indicated.  Doctor  Arnold  continues  his  directions  in 
the  following  words: 

In  this  country  the  bell-shaped  bedroom  mosquito  net  is  almost  always  used;  box- 
shaped  nets  are  rarely  seen.  In  Eastern  countries  the  box-shaped  net  is  generally 
used  fixed  on  to  a  large  four-posted  bed;  such  an  arrangement  has  the  great  advantage 
that  the  net  can  be  drawn  tight  and  there  is  within  it  so  large  a  space  for  the  sleeper 
that  his  limbs,  if  uncovered,  are  not  likely  to  come  in  contact  with  the  net. 
37713— Bull.  88—10 2 


18         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Frequently  the  bell  net  has  too  small  a  ring  at  the  top  and  the  netting  is  not  sewn 
on  to  the  calico  which  closes  the  ring,  but  is  gathered  up  above  it  by  a  running  thread; 
such  an  arrangement  causes  folds  to  be  formed  in  the  net  above  the  ring,  and  through 
the  grooves  of  these  folds  mosquitoes  enter  freely.  Again,  the  net  is  often  allowed  to 
hang  loose  on  the  bed  or  it  is  drawn  over  the  wrhole  bedstead  on  to  the  ground.  When 
hanging  loose  it  affords  very  little  protection,  for  it  will,  during  the  night,  certainly 
come  in  contact  with  the  face,  arms,  etc.,  which  will  be  bitten  through  the  net.  If 
placed  right  over  the  bedstead,  then  its  lower  margin  must  be  heavily  weighted  with 
a  long  and  continuous  sand  bag,  and  every  care  must  be  taken  to  drive  away  mos- 
quitoes which  may  be  sleeping  on  the  dark  underside  of  the  mattress;  in  outlying 
districts  white  ants  would,  in  one  night,  make  short  work  of  net  and  sand  bag  if  lying 
on  a  mud  floor.     How,  then,  should  a  net  be  made  and  arranged? 

Proceed  as  follows:  Obtain  a  ring  of  wood  or  iron,  in  diameter  two  and  a  half  to  three 
feet;  close  it  with  a  piece  of  stout  calico;  on  this  calico,  around  the  circumference 
of  the  ring,  sew  the  mosquito  net  very  carefully,  using  netting  of  the  mesh  shown  as 
No.  1.  Suspend  the  net  to  the  ceiling  in  the  usual  wTay.  Next  arrange  the  bedding 
as  is  done  on  board  ship;  that  is  to  say,  take  the  upper  sheet,  blanket,  and  counterpane 
and  fold  the  margins  inwards  at  the  sides  and  at  the  foot;  all  of  the  bedding  which  wrill 
cover  the  sleeper  will  then  lie  on  the  top  of  the  under  sheet.  Now  tuck  the  mosquito 
net  under  the  mattress  all  around,  drawing  it  tight.  On  going  to  bed  draw  out  the  net 
at  one  side,  creep  in  under  it,  and  carefully  tuck  it  back  under  the  mattress.  The 
sleeper  is  now  in  a  cage;  it  does  not  matter  how  much  he  kicks  about  the  net  will 
remain  true,  and,  provided  that  a  fair-sized  bed  is  used,  there  is  not  much  risk  of  an 
unclothed  part  of  the  body  touching  the  net.  For  use  on  the  veldt  many  kinds  of 
stretchers,  etc.,  have  been  devised.  The  writer  has  used  a  folding  stretcher  which 
carries  four  thin  upright  rods.  Through  eyes  in  the  upper  ends  of  these  rods  runs  a 
cord,  and  over  the  whole  structure  is  placed  a  box-shaped  net.  The  net  sold  with 
the  stretcher  has  its  lower  margin  weighted;  it  is  intended  that  this  lower  margin 
should  lie  on  the  ground.  But  this  is  a  theoretical  arrangement.  First,  one  rarely 
gets  a  flat  piece  of  ground  free  of  grass  and  stones  whereon  to  place  the  stretcher; 
secondly,  a  sudden  gust  of  wind  causes  the  hanging  net  to  "ride-up"  on  the  feet  of 
the  stretchers;  and  lastly,  a  stone  or  grass  lifts  up  the  lower  margin  of  the  net. 

The  net,  etc.,  should  be  arranged  as  follows:  Take  a  large,  long  blanket,  7  feet  by  5 
feet,  fold  it  lengthwise,  and  lay  it  on  the  stretcher  to  serve  as  a  mattress.  Arrange 
the  blankets  which  will  cover  you  just  as  the  top  bedding  is  arranged  for  an  indoor 
bed.  Tuck  in  the  net  carefully  all  around  under  the  blanket  mattress,  taking  special 
care  to  cross  the  folds  of  the  net  around  the  upright  rods.  Crawl  in  under  the  net  and 
close  it  in  the  usual  way.  The  stretcher  used  by  the  writer,  when  opened  for  use, 
measures  6£  by  2^  feet,  and  stands  15  inches  above  the  ground.  The  whole  outfit 
(stretcher,  rods,  and  net)  weighs  26  pounds  and  can  be  packed  into  a  canvas  sack 
measuring  3  feet  by  13  inches. 

SCREENING    BREEDING  PLACES. 

What  we  have  said  in  regard  to  the  size  and  mesh  to  be  used  in 
window  screens  and  canopies  applies  equally  well  to  screens  over 
possible  breeding  places  to  prevent  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes  or 
the  issuing  of  mosquitoes  which  have  bred  therein.  In  cities  in  the 
Gulf  States,  where  the  rain-water  supply  is  conserved  in  large  tanks, 
screening  is  necessary  and  is  now  enforced,  Galveston  and  New 
Orleans  perhaps  being  the  first  to  make  this  an  important  health 
measure.     But  rain-water  barrels  everywhere  must  also  be  screened 


ABOLITION  OF  BREEDING  PLACES.  19 

in  the  same  way,  except  where  fish  are  used  to  kill  the  early  stages 
of  mosquitoes.  In  out-of-the-way  places,  however,  where  it  is 
difficult  to  get  good  screens  or  where  the  expense  of  screening  is 
seriously  to  be  considered,  a  cheap  cover  may  be  made  for  well- 
mouths  or  water  barrels,  such  as  described  by  Dutton  in  his  Report 
of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  the  Gambia,  and  which  he  states  was 
devised  by  Doctor  Forde. 

This  cover  consists  of  a  large  iron  hoop  obtained  from  discarded  barrels,  to  which 
is  fastened  all  around  a  piece  of  stout  calico  or  sacking  free  from  holes  in  such  a  manner 
that  a  good  deal  of  sag  is  left  in  the  material.  After  water  is  obtained  from  the  well 
the  hoop  is  thrown  over  the  mouth,  and  the  calico  catching  on  the  rim  of  the  well 
completely  closes  the  entrance  and  is  kept  taut  by  the  weight  of  the  iron  hoop.  This 
cover  is  so  simple,  and,  however  carelessly  applied,  must  so  effectually  close  the 
entrance  of  the  tub  against  mosquitoes  that  I  think  it  is  well  worthy  of  extensive  use 
in  the  town.  Dr.  Forde  has  lately  informed  me  that  these  covers  are  now  being 
made  in  Bathurst,  and  are  sold  to  the  natives  for  the  sum  of  four  pence. a 

ABOLITION  OF  BREEDING  PLACES. 

In  considering  this  general  question  just  as  in  considering  so 
many  questions  relating  to  mosquitoes,  a  complication  arises  from 
the  enormous  mass  of  facts  concerning  the  life  histories  of  the  differ- 
ent species  of  mosquitoes;  facts  discovered,  for  the  most  part,  in  the 
past  three  or  four  years.  At  the  time  of  the  publication  of  Bulletin 
25,  new  series,  of  this  Bureau,  the  specific  habits  of  but  a  few  mos- 
quitoes were  known  and  the  generalizations  drawn  from  the  knowl- 
edge of  these  few  species  were  altogether  too  broad  and  must  now 
be  greatly  modified.  There  is  much  diversity  in  the  breeding  places 
of  different  species.  Those  of  the  two  commonest  household  mosqui- 
toes, namely,  Culex  pipiens  in  the  North  and  G.  quinquefasciatus  and 
Aedes  (Stegomyia)  calopus  in  the  South,  correspond  well  to  generali- 
zations formerly  named,  breeding  as  these  species  do  in  every  chance 
receptacle  of  water  about  residences,  and  their  destruction  means  the 
abolition  of  all  such  receptacles.  Where  the  rain-water  barrel  or  the 
rain-water  tank  are  necessary  they  should  be  screened.  In  New 
Orleans  and  other  southern  cities  the  boards  of  health  are  now  en- 
forcing such  screening.  This  should  be  done  with  extreme  care,  a 
fine  mesh  wire  being  used  and  the  fitting  being  made  very  perfect. 

About  a  given  house  the  waste  places  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
should  be  carefully  searched  for  tin  cans,  bottles,  and  wooden  or  tin 
boxes  in  wdiich  water  can  accumulate,  and  all  such  receptacles  should 
be  destroyed  or  carted  away.  The  roof  gutters  of  the  building 
should  be  carefully  examined  to  make  sure  that  they  are  not  clogged 
so  as  to  allow  water  to  accumulate.  The  chicken  pans  in  the  poultry 
yard,  the  water  troughs  for  domestic  animals,  the  water  cup  of  the 
grindstone,  are  all  places  in  which  mosquitoes  will  breed  and  in  them 

<*  8  cents. 


20         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

water  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  for  more  than  a  day  or  so  at  a 
time.  In  the  South  the  water  accumulating  under  water  tanks 
should  be  treated  or  drained  away.  The  urns  in  the  cemeteries  at 
New  Orleans  have  been  found  to  breed  mosquitoes  abundantly.  The 
holy  water  fonts  in  Roman  Catholic  churches,  especially  in  the  South, 
have  commonly  been  found  to  breed  mosquitoes;  in  some  places 
sponges  have  been  substituted  for  standing  water,  and  other  churches 
have  adopted  a  closed  font,  which  allows  the  holy  water  to  issue 
through  a  small  spigot.  In  still  other  churches  salt  has  been  put  in 
the  water  to  prevent  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes.  In  slightly 
marshy  ground  a  favorite  breeding  place  is  in  the  footprints  of  cattle 
and  horses.  In  one  country  village,  which  contained  many  small 
vegetable  gardens  in  a  clay  soil,  during  the  rainy  season  mosquitoes 
were  found  breeding  abundantly  in  the  water  accumulating  in  the 
furrows  in  the  gardens. 

Even  in  the  house  mosquitoes  breed  in  many  places  where  they 
may  be  overlooked.  Where  the  water  in  flower  vases  is  not  fre- 
quently changed  mosquitoes  will  breed.  They  will  breed  in  water 
pitchers  in  unused  guest  rooms.  They  will  breed  in  the  tanks  in 
water-closets  when  these  are  not  frequently  in  use.  They  will 
breed  in  pipes  and  under  stationary  washstands  where  these  are  not 
frequently  in  use,  and  they  will  issue  from  the  sewer  traps  in  back 
yards  in  city  houses  during  dry  spells  in  the  summer  time  when 
sewers  have  not  recently  been  flushed  by  heavy  rains.  In  ware- 
houses and  on  docks  they  breed  abundantly  in  the  fire  buckets  and 
water  barrels. 

In  country  houses  in  the  South  where  ants  are  troublesome  and 
where  it  is  the  custom  to  insulate  the  legs  of  the  tables  with  small 
cups  of  water,  mosquitoes  will  breed  in  these  cups  unless  a  small 
quantity  of  kerosene  is  poured  in.  Where  broken  bottles  are  placed 
upon  a  stone  wall  to  form  a  cheval-de-frise,  water  accumulates  in 
the  bottle  fragments  after  rains  and  mosquitoes  will  breed  there. 
Old  disused  wells  in  gardens  are  frequent  sources  of  mosquito  supply, 
even  where  apparently  carefully  covered,  and  here  the  nuisance  is 
easily  abated  by  the  occasional  application  of  kerosene.  The  same 
thing  may  be  said  of  cesspools.  Cesspools  are  frequently  covered 
with  stone  and  cement,  but  the  slightest  break  in  the  cement,  the 
slightest  crack,  will  allow  the  entrance  of  these  minute  insects  and 
unlimited  breeding  often  goes  on  in  these  pools  without  a  suspicion 
of  the  cause  of  the  abundance  of  mosquitoes  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  writer  remembers,  for  example,  on  one  occasion  walking  through 
a  New  Jersey  garden  and  noticing  a  covered  cesspool  with  a  slight 
crack  in  the  cement.  He  remarked  upon  the  danger  to  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  estate,  who  replied  that  mosquitoes  could  not  possibly 
gain  entrance  to  the  water.     Later  in  the  evening,  about  dusk,  the 


ABOLITION  OF  BREEDING  PLACES.  21 

same  spot  was  passed  again  and  a  cloud  of  mosquitoes  was  seen  issu- 
ing from  the  crack  so  abundantly  that  at  a  little  distance  it  seemed 
like  a  stream  of  smoke.     A  little  kerosene  put  a  stop  to  this. 

Fountains  and  ornamental  ponds  are  frequent  breeding  places, 
and  here  the  introduction  of  fish,  as  indicated  in  another  place,  is 
usually  all-sufficient.  It  frequently  happens,  however,  that  the  grass 
is  allowed  to  grow  down  into  the  edges  of  ornamental  ponds  and 
mosquito  larva?  find  refuge  among  the  vegetation  and  so  escape  the 
fish.  Broad-leaved  water  plants  are  also  often  grown  in  such  ponds, 
and  where  these  broad  leaves  lie  flat  upon  the  surface  of  the  water, 
as  they  frequently  do,  one  portion  of  a  given  leaf  may  be  submerged 
so  that  mosquito  larvae  may  breed  freely  in  the  water  over  the  sub- 
merged portion  of  the  leaf,  protected  from  fish  by  the  leaf  itself,  the 
fish  rising  from  below.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  keep  the  edges 
of  such  ornamental  ponds  free  from  vegetation  and  to  choose  aquatic 
plants  whose  growth  will  not  permit  of  mosquito-larvae  protection. 
In  many  small  country  towns,  even  where  there  is  a  water  supply, 
tanks  are  to  be  found  under  the  roofs  to  supply  bathrooms.  Such 
tanks  should  be  screened,  since  mosquitoes  gain  entrance  to  the  tank- 
room  either  through  dormer  windows  or  by  flying  up  through  the 
house  from  below  in  search  of  ovipositing  places.  About  a  large 
old  house  there  are  so  many  of  these  chance-breeding  places  that  only 
the  most  careful  and  long-continued  search  will  find  them  all.  Fre- 
quent change  of  water  or  the  use  of  kerosene  will  render  them  all 
harmless. 

In  community  work  in  cities  all  of  the  points  mentioned  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  and  in  the  portions  of  the  community  where  the  resi- 
dences are  for  the  most  part  detached  villas,  in  the  absence  of 
swamp}^  suburbs  the  householders  are  in  the  main  responsible  for 
their  own  mosquitoes.  There  are,  however,  breeding  places  for  which 
the  municipality  may  be  said  to  be  responsible  and  these  entirely 
aside  from  public  fountains,  reservoirs,  or  marshes.  It  seems  un- 
likely that  in  any  general  sewerage  system  mosquitoes  may  breed 
in  the  sewers  proper.  That  they  do  breed  in  the  catch-basins  is 
well  known.  The  purpose  of  the  catch-basin  is  to  catch  and  retain 
by  sedimentation  sand  and  refuse  which  would  otherwise  enter  the 
sewer  and  deposit  in  it.  It  is  intended  to  be  watertight  and  to  hold 
a  considerable  body  of  water  which  stands  in  it  up  to  the  level  of  the 
outlet  pipe.  Such  catch-basins  are  very  commonly  used  in  back 
yards  and  at  the  crossings  of  streets.  The  water  is  removed  only 
by  rain  or  when  street  or  yard  surfaces  are  washed.  In  dry  seasons 
the  period  of  stagnation  may  last  several  weeks,  certainly  long  enough 
for  mosquito  breeding.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  mosquitoes  in  midsum- 
mer do  breed  in  such  basin  traps  or  catch-basins  by  millions.  In 
the  work  against  mosquitoes  in  Brookline,  Mass.,  in  1901  and  1902, 


22          PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

previously  referred  to,  Culex  pipiens  was  found  breeding  abun- 
dantly in  them,  and  more  than  1,000  such  basins  were  regularly 
treated  with  petroleum.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  in 
the  city  of  Washington  that  during  the  usually  dry  period  of  late 
July,  August,  and  September  mosquitoes  are  rather  numerous  in  the 
northwest  quarter  of  the  city  where  there  are  no  possible  breeding 
places  other  than  these  catch-basins,  and  it  is  urged  that  under  such 
circumstances  residents  make  an  effort  to  have  such  basins  frequently 
treated  with  kerosene. 

The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  in  cities  it  may,  under  certain 
circumstances,  be  possible  for  mosquitoes  to  breed  in  water  accumu- 
lating in  the  troughs  of  underground-conduit  electric  railways,  but  so 
far  as  known  to  the  writer  no  exact  affirmative  observations  have  been 
made.  That  there  is  abundant  opportunity  for  water  to  accumulate 
in  these  troughs  and  that  it  does  so  accumulate  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  It  is  true  that  such  water  will  immediately  become  very 
dirty,  since  dirt  of  all  kinds  falls  into  the  slot,  and  it  would  also  be 
more  or  less  oily.  There  remains  a  chance  that  mosquitoes  may 
breed  in  this  manner,  although  Gen.  George  H.  Harries,  vice-president 
of  the  Washington  Railway  and  Electric  Company,  of  the  city  of 
Washington,  informs  the  writer  that  in  his  opinion  this  chance  is 
very  slight. 

DETERRENT  TREES  AND  PLANTS. 

There  are  many  references  in  descriptive  literature  to  certain  trees 
and  plants  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  mosquitoes  are  never  found. 
Notable  among  these  are  the  eucalyptus  trees  and  the  castor-oil 
plant.  Of  recent  years  there  have  been  many  newspaper  notes  about 
other  plants  and  in  southern  States  the  chinaberry  tree  is  said  to  be 
distasteful. 

EUCALYPTUS. 

The  statement  has  often  been  made  that  the  planting  of  eucalyptus 
trees  in  malarial  regions  will  drive  away  malaria.  This  idea  had  be- 
come rather  firmly  grounded  before  the  discovery  of  the  carriage  of 
malaria  by  mosquitoes.  It  has  been  said,  for  example,  that  the  plant- 
ing of  eucalyptus  trees  in  the  Roman  Campagna  was  followed  by  a 
notable  improvement  in  the  malarial  conditions.  Eucalyptus  oil 
has  been  used  to  keep  mosquitoes  from  biting.  Mr.  Alvah  A.  Eaton, 
of  California,  wrote  to  the  Bureau  of  Entomolog}r,  in  1893,  that  in  his 
opinion  where  the  blue  gum  grows  no  other  remedy  against  mosquitoes 
need  be  sought  for.  He  further  stated  that,  no  matter  how  plentiful 
mosquitoes  may  be,  a  few  twigs  or  leaves  laid  on  the  pillow  at  night 
will  secure  immunity.  Another  correspondent  of  the  Bureau,  Mr. 
W.  A.  Saunders,  wrote  from  California  that  he  had  planted  eucalyptus 
trees  about  his  house  nineteen  years  previously  and  that  they  had 


DETERBENT   TEEES  AND   PLANTS.  23 

reached  a  height  of  140  feet.  According  to  his  statement,  an  irrigat- 
ing ditch  ran  through  the  grove,  but  there  was  never  a  single  mos- 
quito larva  in  the  grove,  although  on  both  sides  of  the  grove  larvse 
were  plentiful.  On  the  other  hand,  the  late  Dr.  A.  Duges,  of  Guana- 
juato, Mexico,  wrote  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau,  on  September  8,  1900: 

I  have  received  your  very  interesting  study  of  the  mosquitoes  of  the  United  States 
and  thank  you  greatly  for  it.  At  the  end  of  the  book  you  speak  of  the  utility  of  euca- 
lyptus for  driving  away  insects.  I  have  had  some  experience  with  these  trees.  The 
fresh  leaves  placed  upon  the  pillow  will  attract  mosquitoes.  Thinking  that  the 
mosquitoes  loved  this  plant  I  had  placed  the  branches  farther  away,  but  without  result. 
I  have  burned  the  leaves  in  my  chamber,  and  the  cursed  beasts  have  resisted  the 
smoke. 

Eucalyptus  trees  of  many  species  are  now  grown  generally  all 
through  California,  and  the  idea  that  they  drive  away  mosquitoes 
must  be  abandoned.  Mr.  H.  J.  Quayle,  in  Bulletin  178  of  the  Califor- 
nia Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  states  that  in  the  Burlingame 
section  not  far  from  San  Francisco,  all  of  the  avenues  are  lined  with 
eucalyptus  trees  and  mosquitoes  are  most  numerous  where  these 
trees  are  most  abundant.  In  1901  he  captured  a  pint  cup  of  mos- 
quitoes immediately  under  eucalyptus  trees.  Coyote  Point  is  covered 
with  eucalyptus  trees,  yet  the  construction  of  a  hotel  on  the  point 
was  abandoned  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  mosquitoes. 

Edmond  and  Etienne  Sergent,  in  their  antimalarial  work  in  Algeria, 
had  occasion  to  study  the  question  of  eucalyptus  and  published  their 
results,  together  with  the  results  of  their  observations  and  experi- 
ments upon  certain  other  plants  supposed  to  be  deterrent  to  mosqui- 
toes, in  the  Comptes  Rendus  des  Seances  de  la  Societe  de  Biologie, 
November  14,  1903.  With  regard  to  eucalyptus  they  show  that  the 
railway  station  of  Ouled-Rahmoun,  formerly  greatly  troubled  by 
mosquitoes,  was  visited  by  them  much  less  frequently  after  the  cutting 
down  of  great  eucalyptus  trees  which  surrounded  it.  The  station  of 
Ighzer-Amokran,  which  is  isolated  in  the  middle  of  a  desert  plain,  is 
surrounded  by  a  little  grove  of  eucalyptus.  Before  the  windows  and 
doors  were  screened  the  rooms  were  visited  every  evening  by  quan- 
tities of  Anopheles.  The  traveling  Kabyles  who  stopped  at  this  sta- 
tion would  never  sleep  at  midday  under  the  foliage  of  the  eucalyptus, 
for  they  said  mosquitoes  always  came  down  on  them.  They  went 
under  the  olives,  where  they  were  never  bitten. 

CASTOR-OIL   PLANT. 

During  the  winter  of  1901  a  great  deal  was  said  in  the  newspapers 
about  the  planting  of  the  castor-oil  plants  (Ricinus  communis)  to  pre- 
vent mosquitoes.  These  notes  at  that  time  were  mainly  based  upon 
a  consular  report  from  Capt.  E.  H.  Plumacher,  United  States  consul 
at  Maracaibo,  Venezuela.     In  this  report  Captain  Plumacher  stated 


24         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

that  his  residence  is  surrounded  by  plantain  and  banana  trees  and 
that  he  had  been  troubled  in  the  past  by  a  great  number  of  mosquitoes 
which  gathered  in  these  trees.  Following  the  example  of  old  settlers, 
he  planted  castor  seeds,  which  grew  up  in  profusion,  with  the  result 
that  no  mosquitoes  were  to  be  found  among  the  trees,  although  he 
kept  the  ground  well  irrigated.  Captain  Plumacher  came  to  Wash- 
ington the  following  year  and  called  on  the  writer  April  IS,  1901, 
bringing  with  him  the  seed  of  the  particular  variety  of  the  castor-oil 
plant  with  which  he  had  noted  the  result  above  stated.  The  seeds 
were  planted  upon  the  department  grounds  and  observations  indi- 
cated that  mosquitoes  were  not  at  all  deterred  by  the  plants.  In  a 
report  sent  in  from  Progreso,  Yucatan,  September  17,  1903,  United 
States  Consul  Thompson  makes  the  following  statement: 

The  belief  is  current  among  the  natives  of  Yucatan  that  a  few  castor-oil  plants 
growing  in  or  near  a  dwelling  will  protect  the  inmates  from  mosquitoes  and  certain 
other  noxious  insects  peculiar  to  Yucatan.  This  belief  has  been  to  a  certain  extent 
confirmed  upon  experiment  by  me  personally.  My  dwelling  at  one  time  seemed  to 
be  peculiarly  acceptable  to  mosquitoes.  I  planted  a  row  of  castor-oil  plants  around 
the  courtyard  and  in  a  short  time  the  mosquito  was  as  rare  as  he  was  formerly  a  fre- 
quent visitor.  My  plants  were  destroyed  by  the  cyclone  and  now  the  mosquitoes 
are  as  abundant  as  formerly. 

Some  of  the  Venezuela  seeds  brought  by  Captain  Plumacher  were 
sent  to  Mr.  J.  Turner  Brakeley,  of  Bordentown,  N.  J.  He  planted 
them  in  the  early  summer  of  1901,  and  later  in  the  summer  observa- 
tions were  made  with  the  result  that  mosquitoes  were  found  both  on 
the  Venezuela  plants  and  on  other  castor-oil  plants.  Mr.  Brakeley 
wrote: 

The  castor-oil  plant  is  no  good  as  a  "skeetonal "  protection  in  New  Jersey.  It  may 
be  a  protection  against  the  Venezuela  mosquito,  but  it  is  no  good  where  the  blood 
pirates  of  New  Jersey  are  concerned. 

Giles  publishes  a  letter  sent  to  the  Pioneer,  an  Indian  journal,  in 
1901,  in  which  the  correspondent  stated  that  he  had  seen  a  recom- 
mendation of  the  castor-oil  plant  as  a  deterrent  for  mosquitoes,  and 
in  consequence  had  six  plants  placed  in  pots  in  his  room.  The  result 
was  that  the  plants  were  thickly  covered  by  the  insects,  which  seemed 
"to  be  actually  invigorated  by  the  apparently  stimulating  effect  of 
their  new  quarters." 

The  Sergents  in  Algeria  experimented  both  with  the  castor-oil 
plant  and  with  pawpaw  (  Cariea  papaya),  on  account  of  the  reputation 
that  these  plants  had  as  deterrents  against  mosquitoes.  A  pawpaw 
about  90  centimeters  (3  feet)  high  and  in  good  condition  was  inclosed 
in  a  mosquito  bar  of  tulle,  oblong  in  form,  with  its  axis  directed  per- 
pendicularly to  the  window  from  which  the  light  came.  In  the  end 
of  the  bar  nearest  the  window  they  suspended  a  raisin  grape,  for  food 
of  the  mosquitoes,  and  a  little  vessel  of  water.  Then  at  the  opposite 
end  of  the  bar  they  put  in  four  females  of  Anopheles  maculipennis  and 


DETERRENT  TREES  AND  PLANTS.  25 

four  females  of  Culex  pipiens.  They  wished  to  see  if  the  instinct 
which  attracts  the  mosquitoes  toward  the  light  and  toward  an  appar- 
ent way  of  escaping,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  need  of  nourishment 
and  water,  would  induce  the  mosquitoes  to  pass  the  middle  portion 
of  the  bar  which  was  entirely  filled  with  large  leaves  of  the  pawpaw. 
At  the  end  of  four  minutes  one  Anopheles  and  one  Culex  had  passed 
from  one  end  of  the  bar  to  the  other;  at  the  end  of  ten  minutes  another 
Anopheles  and  two  Culex  were  seen  to  place  themselves  upon  the 
pawpaw  leaves  and  they  remained  there  for  hours.  The  mosquito 
bar  was  left  intact  for  eight  days.  During  this  period  the  mosquitoes 
went  everywhere  and  rested  sometimes  several  hours  upon  the  leaves 
and  upon  the  branches. 

An  experiment  exactly  similar  was  carried  on  at  the  same  time 
with  Ricinus  communis,  with  precisely  similar  results.  When  these 
experiments  concluded  at  the  end  of  eight  days  one  Anopheles  and 
one  Culex  were  found  dead  in  the  pawpaw  mosquito  bar,  and  in  the 
Ricinus  bar  also  one  Anopheles  and  one  Culex.  But  in  similar  cages 
in  another  room  during  the  same  time  six  Anopheles  out  of  twenty 
had  died  and  nine  Culex  out  of  twenty-eight,  in  the  absence  of  the 
Carica  and  Ricinus  plants.  The  authors  concluded  that  pawpaw, 
castor-oil  plant,  and  eucalyptus  are  powerless  in  their  effect  on 
mosquitoes. 

CHIXABERRY    TREES. 

In  spite  of  the  statement  that  chinaberry  trees  will  protect  against 
mosquitoes,  observations  have  failed  to  show  the  truth  of  the  state- 
ment, and  in  mosquito  regions  people  are  quite  as  liable  to  be  bitten 
while  sitting  under  a  chinaberry  tree  as  under  any  other  tree.  Never- 
theless there  is  an  observation  upon  record  which  suggests  that  further 
experiments  will  be  interesting.  In  the  Public  Health  Reports,  Vol. 
21,  Xo.  44,  November  1,  1901,  Dr.  G.  M.  Corput,  assistant  surgeon, 
U.  S.  Marine-Hospital  Service,  gave  the  results  of  certain  experiments 
conducted  by  hanging  cans  of  water  in  the  branches  of  different  trees, 
including  oak,  pine,  cherry,  and  palmetto.  He  found  that  in  the 
can  hung  in  the  chinaberry  bushes  there  were  no  mosquito  larvas  at 
any  time,  although  larvre  were  found  in  all  of  the  other  cans. 

OTHER    PLANTS. 

A  number  of  plants  credited  with  being  deterrent  to  mosquitoes 
have  been  mentioned  from  time  to  time  in  the  newspapers,  some  of 
the  accounts  being  of  a  sensational  character.  The  Xew  York 
papers,  for  example,  in  the  summer  of  1906  contained  numerous 
notices  of  the  so-called  "phu-lo"  plant  introduced  from  the  Tonkin 
country  in  French  Indo-China  by  Baron  de  Taillac.  This  plant  was 
said  to  be  valuable  as  a  fodder  for  cattle,  and  to  drive  away  mosqui- 


26         PREVENTIVE   AND   REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

toes.  An  effort  was  made  to  determine  the  plant,  and  Mr.  W.  E. 
SafTord  searched  the  literature  of  oriental  economic  botany  without 
finding  anything  corresponding  to  it.  He  found  that  in  the  East 
Indies  there  is  a  Verbascum  or  mullein  called  "phul,"  the  seeds  of 
which  are  supposed  to  be  narcotic,  and  the  leaves  used  like  those  of 
tobacco.  The  leaves  of  this  plant,  although  not  good  for  general 
forage,  are  eaten  by  camels  and  goats.  Assuming  that  this  is  the 
plant  mentioned  by  the  newspapers,  there  is  nothing  in  the  economic 
literature  concerning  its  use  as  a  mosquito  deterrent. 

Another  plant  which  is  said  to  act  as  a  deterrent  is  a  lavender  known 
as  Ocimum  viride,  a  perennial  which  grows  from  3  to  6  feet  in  height 
and  occurs  from  Senegambia  southward  to  Angola.  Mr.  A.  E.  Ship- 
ley a  states  that  Major  Burdon,  resident  of  the  Nupe  Province, 
northern  Nigeria,  had  given  him  the  following  account  of  the  plant: 

A  fragment  of  what  turned  out  to  be  Ocimum  viride  was  given  me  in  August  last  at 
Lokoja,  northern  Nigeria,  by  Capt.  II.  D.  Larymore,  C.  M.  G.,  R.  A.,  resident  of  the 
Kabba  Province.  Capt.  Larymore's  notice  had  been  drawn  to  the  plant  by  a  native 
living  in  a  low-lying  part  of  the  native  town  at  Lokoja,  who  had  told  him  that  the 
natives  suffered  very  little  from  the  swarms  of  mosquitoes  which  existed  in  that  part, 
as  they  protected  themselves  from  them  by  the  use  of  this  plant. 

Capt.  Larymore  made  inquiries  and  obtained  a  few  specimens  of  the  plant,  which 
grows  wild,  though  not  very  abundantly,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lokoja.  These 
specimens  he  planted  in  pots  and  boxes  and  kept  in  and  about  his  house.  The  speci- 
mens I  saw  were  about  the  size  of  a  geranium. 

He  informed  me  that  the  presence  of  one  of  these  plants  in  a  room  undoubtedly 
drove  the  mosquitoes  out,  and  that  by  placing  three  or  four  of  the  plants  around  his 
bed  at  night  he  was  able  to  sleep  unmolested  without  using  a  mosquito  net.  This 
is  very  strong  testimony  to  the  efficacy  of  the  plant,  for  the  house  in  which  Capt. 
Larymore  was  living  is,  as  I  had  cause  to  know  well  in  former  years,  infested  with 
mosquitoes. 

Mr.  Shipley  further  states  that  E.  M.  Holmes  in  "Notes  on  the 
Medicinal  Plants  of  Liberia"  records  that  when  chewed  or  rubbed 
the  leaves  of  0.  viride  give  off  a  strong  odor  of  lemon  thyme,  and 
mentions  that  Doctor  Roberts,  of  Liberia,  entirely  substituted  the 
use  of  the  plant  for  that  of  quinine  in  cases  of  fever  of  all  kinds, 
giving  it  in  the  form  of  an  infusion. 

Goeldi,  in  Brazil,  has  experimented  with  Ocimum  minimum  without 
the  slightest  beneficial  result.  He  also  tested  Carica  papaya,  a  plant 
which  has  a  similar  reputation,  but  also  without  beneficial  result. 
An  account  of  the  Sergents'  experiments  with  the  latter  plant  has 
just  been  given  under  the  heading  of  the  castor-oil  plant. 

Mr.  Shipley's  article  in  the  Tropical  Agriculturist  was  reprinted  in 
the  British  Medical  Journal  and  was  quoted  in  many  other  periodicals, 
and  in  consequence  many  requests  for  seeds  of  Ocimum  viride  were 
received  at  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens  at  Kew  from  many  parts  of 
the  world.     About  this  time  a  report  was  received  from  Dr.  W.  T. 

a  The  Tropical  Agriculturist,  February  2,  1903,  pp.  555-556. 


DETEREENT   TEEES   AND   PLANTS.  27 

Prout  at  Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  and  was  published  by  Sir  William 
Thistle  ton-Dyer  in  the  London  Times  for  July  27,  1903,  and  in 
Nature,  July  30,  1903.  Doctor  Prout's  report  included  an  account  of 
experiments  made  with  the  "basil"  plant  in  relation  to  its  effect  upon 
mosquitoes,  and  he  concludes  that  his  observations  "appear  to  dis- 
pose conclusively  of  the  plants  possessing  any  real  protective  value." 
He  showed  that  growing  plants  have  little  or  no  effect  in  driving 
away  mosquitoes,  and  are  not  to  be  relied  upon  as  a  substitute  for  the 
mosquito  net.  He  showed,  further,  that  fresh  ' '  basil"  leaves  have  no 
prejudicial  effect  upon  mosquitoes  when  placed  in  close  contact  with 
them,  and,  further,  that  while  the  fumes  of  burnt  "  basil"  leaves  have 
a  stupefying  and  eventually  a  destructive  effect  on  mosquitoes,  it  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  produce  this  effect,  to  bring  about  a  saturation 
of  the  air  which  renders  it  impossible  for  individuals  to  remain  in  the 
room.  He  thinks  that  cones  made  of  powdered  "basil"  would, 
when  burned,  have  the  effect  of  driving  mosquitoes  away,  and  that 
the  plant  to  that  extent  might  be  found  useful. 

PEAT. 

An  article  in  the  London  Times  in  1908,  written  by  an  anonymous 
correspondent,  refers  to  the  absence  of  mosquitoes  in  swamps  and 
marshes  with  peat.  The  writer  says:  "Given  marshy  lands  and  no 
peat,  mosquitoes  abound;  given  marshy  land  and  peat,  there  are 
none."  This  article  was  answered  by  Mr.  F.  V.  Theobald  in  Nature, 
October  15,  1908,  pages  607-608.  Mr.  Theobald  showed  that  he  had 
found  Anopheles  nigripes  and  Anopheles  bifurcatus  breeding  in  the 
water  of  peat  cuttings  in  Wales  and  Somerset  and  on  the  far-famed 
Wicken  Fen  numbers  of  Aedes  cantans.  He  stated  that  mosquitoes 
are  often  very  abundant  in  the  fens,  even  where  the  peat  is  dug. 
Besides  the  species  above  mentioned  he  has  found  Anopheles  maculi- 
pennis  and  Ouliseta  annulata  in  peaty  water  and  near  peat  piles  in 
northern  Wales. 

WATER    PLANTS. 

Ordinary  pools  of  stagnant  water  give  birth  to  thousands  of  mos- 
quitoes, the  larvae  breeding  with  the  greatest  facility  in  such  water. 
The  presence  of  algae  and  certain  low  forms  of  aquatic  vegetation  is 
evidence  of  the  stagnation  of  the  water,  and  an  algal  scum  is  fre- 
quently associated  with  the  idea  of  mosquitoes  in  one's  mind.  But 
it  is  perfectly  plain  that  where  the  water  covering  of  aquatic  vegeta- 
tion becomes  extremely  dense  mosquitoes  can  not  breed,  since  there 
is  no  opportunity  for  the  larvae  to  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe. 
Access  to  air  is  shut  off  by  the  dense  covering  of  vegetation.  It  has 
often  been  a  matter  of  surprise  that  mosquitoes  are  not  more  numer- 
ous in  Holland,  where  the  country  is  traversed  by  canals  and  dikes. 


28         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Mosquitoes  breed  there  in  ponds  and  in  chance  receptacles  of  water, 
but  the  water  in  the  large  canals  is  so  constantly  agitated  by  the  pas- 
sage of  boats  and  by  the  wind  that  mosquitoes  can  not  breed,  and  in 
the  smaller  ditches  and  canals  the  surface  of  the  water  becomes  so 
completely  covered  with  a  continuous  layer  of  minute  aquatic  vege- 
tation (often  of  considerable  thickness)  early  in  the  summer  that 
there  is  no  opportunity  for  the  extensive  breeding  of  mosquitoes. 

Quite  recently  this  idea  has  been  taken  up  with  practical  ends  in 
view  in  regard  to  antimosquito  work  in  German  colonies  in  Africa. 
It  is  stated  in  a  dispatch  from  Consul-General  Richard  Guenther,  of 
Frankfort,0  that  the  director  of  fisheries  at  Biebrich,  Mr.  Bartmann, 
had  found  a  duckweed  of  the  genus  Azolla  to  be  especially  well 
adapted  to  this  use;  and  it  was  at  his  instance  that  experiments 
were  made  at  the  malaria  station  at  YVilhelmshaven.  It  was  found 
that  the  growth  of  the  plant  covered  the  experimental  waters  in  a 
short  time  with  a  layer  of  about  6  centimeters,  which  suffocated  all 
the  mosquito  larvae  below  and  prevented  the  living  insects  from  de- 
positing eggs  in  the  water.  Consul-General  Guenther  states  that  sev- 
eral years  ago  Director  Bartmann  communicated  this  method  to  the 
mosquito-destroying  commission  at  Eltville  on  the  Rhine,  which  has 
used  it  repeatedly  with  good  success. 

So  positive  were  the  statements  published  in  the  United  States  as 
to  the  results  of  Mr.  Bartmann's  work  with  Azolla  plants  that  one 
species  has  been  imported  from  Europe  into  the  United  States  and 
will  be  experimented  upon  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  by  Doctor  Smith,  of  Rutgers  College.  The  prospects  of 
success,  however,  are  by  no  means  great.  One  of  the  German  offi- 
cials who  took  part  in  the  question  of  mosquito  extermination  in  the 
German-African  colonies  is  far  from  enthusiastic  regarding  the  prac- 
tical use  of  this  plant,  although  it  has  been  advertised  on  all  sides  in 
Europe  and  in  this  country.  In  his  opinion  it  may  possibly  be  of 
some  use  in  special  places,  but  so  far  as  experiments  have  gone,  down 
to  the  present  day,  the  plants  will  not  grow  in  dense  or  even  moderate 
shade,  and  therefore  they  are  of  no  use  in  the  tropical  forests  where 
there  are  large  and  small  pools  of  water — the  very  places  where  it  is 
most  needed.  Moreover,  the  Azolla  plants  do  not  stand  any  great 
cold,  nor  do  they  stand  short  seasons,  for  which  reasons  their  use  is 
excluded  from  highland  and  northern  regions.  Further,  they  will  not 
grow  in  brackish  water  and  can  not  be  utilized  along  seacoasts,  and, 
still  further,  in  case  of  drought  they  all  perish  and  thus  necessitate 
the  restocking  of  dried  pools  and  swamps. 

A  short  statement  regarding  the  practical  use  of  water  plants 
occurs  on  pages  1  and  2  of  the  fourth  volume  of  Theobald's  "Mono- 

a  Monthly  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Bur.  Manufactures,  U.  S.  Dept.  Commerce 
and  Labor,  March,  1909. 


DETERRENT    TREES   AND   PLANTS.  29 

graph  of  the  Culicidge  of  the  World."     This  statement  may  well  be 
quoted: 

Major  Adie,  I.  M.  S.  (Ind.  Med.  Gaz.,  xxxix,  June,  No.  6,  1904),  brings  considerable 
evidence  to  bear  on  the  benefit  of  Lemna  minor  as  a  means  of  keeping  mosquitoes  from 
laying  their  eggs  on  water.  He  shows  that  tanks  covered  with  this  green  flat  weed 
nevercontain  larvae  of  Culicidae,  whilst  others  at  the  same  time  of  year  are  full  of  them. 

As  a  test  he  "cleared  certain  areas  near  the  banks  of  all  Lemna  and  enclosed  them 
with  light  floating  structures,  which  were  fixed  enough  to  resist  the  winds — in  fact, 
made  experimental  pools.  I  was  pleased,"  he  says,  "to  find  in  due  time  plenty  of 
Anopheles  larvae  in  these  pools.  This  seemed  to  prove  that  Lemna  acts  as  a  mechanical 
obstruction  to  the  process  of  egg-laying,  and  a  very  obvious  method  of  prevention 
occurred  to  me.  Why  not  deliberately  promote  the  growth  of  Lemna  minor  in  all 
unavoidable  collections  of  water  to  prevent  the  propagation  of  mosquitoes?" 

This  same  green  plant  grows  freely  in  England,  and  I  have  noticed  a  similar  occur- 
rence here.  A  pond  close  to  my  house  was  frequented  by  numbers  of  the  larvae  of 
Anopheles  bifurcatus  and  A.  maculipennis  every  year.  Two  years  ago  its  surface 
became  smothered  with  Lemna  minor,  Linn.,  and  Lemna  arrhiza,  Linn.;  no  Anopheline 
larvae  could  then  be  found.  As  this  was  the  only  breeding  ground  near,  both  species 
have  practically  died  out. 

This  small  yet  widely  distributed  genus  of  floating  plants  evidently  has  a  very 
marked  effect  upon  the  frequence  of  culicid  larvae  in  natural  and  artificial  collections 
of  water. 

The  little  Lemna  arrhiza,  or  the  rootless  duckweed,  occurs  in  Asia,  Africa,  South 
America,  and  Europe,  and  apparently  has  the  same  effect  as  the  larger  L.  minor. 

An  early  suggestion  as  to  the  practical  use  of  water  plants  occurs 
in  Mr.  William  Beutenmuller's  essay  on  the  "Destruction  of  the  mos- 
quito and  house  fly,"  published  in  Dragon-Flies  v.  Mosquitoes,  The 
Lamborn  Prize  Essays,  New  York,  1890.  Mr.  Beutenmiiller  states 
that  Mr.  L.  P.  Gratacap,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, suggests  the  increase  of  fresh-water  algae  as  deterring  the 
progress  of  mosquito  larvae  in  the  water  and  as  affecting  their  destruc- 
tion before  they  can  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe.  Mr. 
Beutenmiiller,  considering  the  suggestion  important,  stated  that  he 
believed  that  the  vast  number  of  fronds  of  Oscillatoria  in  the  Central 
Park  lakes,  in  New  York  City,  have  had  a  deterrent  effect  on  the 
propagation  of  mosquitoes  in  the  lakes.  A  largely  disseminated 
mass  of  algae  floating  through  the  water  by  its  intermixed  and  dif- 
fused stipes  he  thought  would  seriously  embarrass  the  development 
and  movements  of  the  mosquito  larvae. 

The  duckweeds  were  considered  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Johnson  in  an  appen- 
dix to  Smith's  New  Jersey  Report  for  1902,a  and  by  virtue  of  the 
actual  small-scale  experiment  tried,  these  observations  are  printed  in 
full. 

While  most  forms  of  aquatic  vegetation  promote  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes,  the 
Lemnaceae,  or  duckweeds,  are  unfavorable,  and  in  many  waters  almost  or  even  wholly 
prevent  it.  These  tiny  plants  consist  merely  of  a  floating  frond,  resembling  a  minia- 
ture lily-pad.     It  is  circular  or  more  frequently  lobated  and  three  to  six  millimeters 

a  Rep.  Ent.  Dept.  N.  J.  Agr.  Coll.  Exp.  Sta.  f.  1902,  pp.  565-566. 


30         PREVENTIVE  AND   REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

in  diameter.  From  the  under  surface  hang  one  or  more  roots,  which  never  fasten  in 
the  soil,  but  derive  their  nourishment  from  the  water.  Its  reproduction,  mainly  by 
division  of  the  frond,  is  so  rapid  that  in  a  short  time  (usually  before  July  1)  it  com- 
pletely mantles  quiet  waters,  notably  sheltered  ponds  and  ditches  without  percepti- 
ble flow.  Its  extraordinary  abundance,  often  covering  whole  acres  of  shallow  water, 
makes  it  an  efficient  protection  from  mosquito  breeding.  Wherever  this  plant  forms 
a  complete  covering  no  larvae  have  been  found.  Such  places  should  never  be  treated 
with  oil,  for  nature  has  provided  a  far  more  lasting  and  equally  effective  protection. 
It  is  probably  impossible  for  a  mosquito  to  lay  her  eggs  on  lemna-covered  water. 
Even  should  lame  wander  in  from  adjacent  waters,  they  would  be  unable  to  reach 
the  surface  for  air,  and  would  thus  soon  become  asphyxiated.  Larvae  of  Culex  pun- 
gens,  injected  by  means  of  a  pipette  beneath  the  lemna  in  the  jar  *  *  *  died  in 
less  than  an  hour.  Where  the  lemna  mantle  is  not  complete,  but  presents  interspaces 
of  open  water,  larvae  of  both  Culex  and  Anopheles  will  usually  be  found  in  small 
numbers  only,  for  lemna  waters  are  apt  to  harbor  the  various  predaceous  water-bugs 
in  great  numbers. 

In  considering  these  duckweeds  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  mos- 
quito larvae  other  than  Anopheles  are  often  found  in  waters  well 
covered  by  them.  Both  Dr.  H.  G.  Dyar  and  Mr.  Frederick  Knab 
have  made  this  observation. 

SMUDGES  AND  FUMIGANTS. 

Hunters  and  campers  have  been  in  the  habit  of  using  almost  any- 
thing that  will  make  a  dense  smoke  as  a  smudge  to  drive  away  mos- 
quitoes. In  Bermuda,  fresh  cascarilla  bark  is  burned  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  elsewhere  other  green  bark  and  vegetation.  For  household 
use,  however,  a  number  of  different  substances  have  been  tried. 

PYRETHRUM    OR    CHRYSANTHEMUM. 

For  many  years  finely  ground  powders  known  as  Pyrethrum  pow- 
der, Chrysanthemum  powder,  Persian  insect  powder,  or  Dalmatian 
insect  powder  have  been  used  to  kill  insects.  They  became  famous 
for  their  insecticidal  effects  long  before  their  composition  was  known. 
Their  use  seems  to  have  originated  in  Asiatic  countries  beyond  the 
Caucasus  Mountains.  The  powder  was  sold  at  high  price  by  the 
inhabitants  and  was  brought  by  merchants  to  Russia  and  western 
European  countries.  The  nature  of  the  powder  was  kept  a  secret 
until  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  when  an  Armenian  merchant, 
Mr.  Jumtikon",  learned  that  the  powder  was  obtained  from  the  dried 
flowerheads  of  certain  species  of  composite  plants  of  the  genus  Pyre- 
thrum growing  abundantly  in  the  region  now  known  as  "  Transcau- 
casia." The  son  of  Mr.  Jumtikoff  began  to  manufacture  the  article 
on  a  large  scale  in  1828,  and  since  then  the  pyrethrum  industry  has 
steadily  grown  and  now  the  export  in  dried  flowerheads  in  that  part 
of  the  country  is  very  important. 

The  species  grown  commercially  in  the  Transcaucasian  region  is 
Pyrethrum  roseum.     The  species  grown  in  Dalmatia  is  P.  cinerarise- 


SMUDGES   AND   FUMIGANTS.  31 

folium,  and  the  crop  in  Dalmatia  is  comparatively  as  valuable  as  the 
other.  Thirty  years  ago  it  was  considered  the  most  valuable  export 
in  Dalmatia.  The  best  powders  are  made  from  the  dried  flower- 
heads  of  these  plants,  and  the  essential  principle  seems  to  be  a  vola- 
tile oil  that  disappears  with  age  and  with  exposure.  Powders  im- 
ported from  Europe  are  apparently  not  so  strong  as  powders  made 
in  this  country  from  imported  dried  flowerheads  brought  over  in 
bulk.  For  this  reason  it  was,  many  years  ago,  deemed  very  desira- 
ble to  establish  a  Pyrethrum-growing  industry  in  the  United  States, 
and  in  1881  the  United  States  Entomological  Commission  imported 
and  distributed  the  seeds  of  the  two  species  above  mentioned  to  a 
number  of  correspondents  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The 
total  success  was  inconsiderable.  Further  experiments  another  year 
met  with  comparative  failure.  About  this  time  more  extensive 
plantations  were  made  in  California  and  an  insect  powder  was  made 
by  the  Buhach  Producing  and  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Stockton, 
Cal.,  which,  being  American  grown  and  freshly  ground,  came  into  use, 
and  is  still  being  produced  and  sold  under  the  proprietary  name  of 
"  buhach,"  the  word  being  supposedly  derived  from  a  Slavonic  word 
"  buha,"  meaning  flea.  An  article  by  Mr.  D.  W.  Coquillett  on  the 
production  and  manufacture  of  this  powder  will  be  found  in  a  bul- 
letin" of  this  Bureau. 

Most  of  the  insect  powders  sold  in  the  shops  in  this  country  have  Pyre- 
thrum  powder  as  a  basis.  It  is  difficult  to  get  a  pure  and  thoroughly 
efficient  powder.  There  is  often  adulteration.  Frequently  the  powder 
made  from  the  dried  flowerheads  is  adulterated  with  powder  made 
from  the  stems,  or  with  other  adulterants.  Pyrethrum  powders  are 
usually  used  dry  and  are  puffed  or  blown  into  crevices  frequented 
by  insects,  or  puffed  or  blown  into  the  air  of  a  room  in  which  there 
are  mosquitoes  or  flies.  The  burning  of  the  powder  in  a  room  at 
night  is  a  common  practice.  The  powder  is  heaped  up  in  a  little 
pyramid  which  is  lighted  at  the  top  and  burns  slowly,  giving  off  a 
dense  and  pungent  smoke  with  an  odor  very  much  like  that  of  the 
Chinese  punk  used  to  light  firecrackers.  Often  the  powder  is  moist- 
ened and  molded  roughly  into  small  cones,  and  after  drying  it 
burns  readily  and  perhaps  with  less  waste  than  does  the  dry  powder. 
Of  late  years  in  mosquito-infested  countries  a  number  of  mosquito 
pastilles  have  been  sold,  and  many  of  these  are  molded  from  powders 
that  contain  more  or  less  Pyrethrum.  The  efficacy  of  the  burning 
pyrethrum  in  a  close  room  is  almost  perfect.  It  will  not  actually 
kill  all  the  mosquitoes,  but  will  stupefy  them  and  cause  them  to  fall 
to  the  floor  where  they  may  be  swept  up  and  burned.  With  the 
windows  open,  however,  and  the  constant  currents  of  fresh  air  blow- 
ing through  the  room,  this  fumigation  is  not  especially  effective, 
and  it  is  necessary  for  protection  to  sit  in  the  cloud  of  smoke. 

a  Bui.  12,  old  series,  Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  pp.  7-16,  1886. 


32          PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

The  pungent  odor  of  burning  pyrethrum  is  not  disagreeable  to 
most  people,  but  to  some  it  is  disagreeable,  and  with  certain  sus- 
ceptible individuals  it  produces  headache.  It  is  apparently  possible, 
however,  to  volatilize  the  oil  without  producing  the  actual  smoke. 
Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw,  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  informs  the  writer  that  a  few  years  ago 
a  man  in  Hawaii  patented  an  appliance  for  producing  this  volatiliza- 
tion which  is  all  that  can  be  wished  for.  The  powder  is  placed  on 
a  brass  or  other  metal  screen  above  the  chimney  of  a  kerosene  lamp, 
the  idea  being  to  dissipate  the  vapor  of  the  volatile  oil.  According 
to  Mr.  Henshaw  the  effect  of  this  method  is  most  remarkable.  "  Be- 
sides being  very  economical  in  powder  there  is  only  a  very  slight 
odor  perceptible  and  that  is  not  at  all  unpleasant.  The  effect  on 
the  mosquitoes  is  immediate  and  all  that  can  be  wished  for.  They 
simply  clear  out."  Another  method  of  burning  the  powder  that  has 
often  been  employed  by  the  writer  consists  in  puffing  it  from  an  in- 
sufflator into  a  burning  gas  jet.  This  is  a  simple  method  where 
gas  is  used  for  illuminating  purposes  and  produces  a  vapor  that 
suffocates  all  mosquitoes  and  other  insects  that  may  be  in  the  room. 

While  pyrethrum  has  been  mainly  used  as  a  means  of  clearing 
living  rooms  of  mosquitoes,  and  has  ordinarily  been  burned  in  the 
rooms  while  they  were  occupied,  it  has  also  come  into  use  in  the 
extensive  fumigation  of  houses  in  cases  of  epidemics  of  yellow  fever, 
in  the  effort  to  rid  houses  of  malarial  mosquitoes,  and  to  destroy 
all  mosquitoes  hibernating  in  cellars,  attics,  or  disused  rooms  of 
residences,  as  well  as  similar  hibernating  mosquitoes  in  barns  and 
outhouses.  While  reasonably  effective  for  such  purposes,  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  as  effective  as  some  of  the  other  substances  to  be 
mentioned  later  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  more  expensive. 

As  to  the  quantity  to  be  used,  the  regulations  of  the  board  of  health 
of  New  Orleans,  adopted  May  25,  1903,  specify  the  burning  of  4  ounces 
of  pyrethrum  powder  to  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space;  but  the  president 
of  the  board,  Dr.  Edmond  Souchon,  a  little  less  than  a  year  later 
wrote  to  the  United  States  Marine-Hospital  Service  that  this  quan- 
tity was  found  insufficient  for  thorough  work,  and  that  1  pound 
of  the  powder  to  every  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space  is  necessary.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  the  New  Orleans  board  of  health  aban- 
doned pyrethrum  about  that  time,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
fumes  do  not  kill  mosquitoes  but  simply  stupefy  them,  so  that  they 
have  to  be  brushed  up  and  burned.  Not  willing  to  run  the  slightest 
chance  of  having  mosquitoes  survive  by  escaping  destruction  after 
being  stupefied,  the  board  decided  to  use  sulphur  fumes  in  preference. 

Nevertheless,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  fumes  are  not  noxious 
to  human  beings,  there  still  remains  a  decided  use  for  pyrethrum  in 
everyday  work  in  mosquito-inhabited  regions. 


SMUDGES   AND    FUMIGANTS.  33 

MIMMS    CULICIDE. 

During  the  yellow-fever  outbreak  in  New  Orleans  in  the  summer 
of  1905  a  Mr.  Mimms,  a  chemist  of  New  Orleans,  invented  a  mosquito 
fumigant  which  was  experimented  with  rather  extensively  and  found 
to  give  good  results.  It  was  made  of  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of 
carbolic-acid  crystals  and  gum  camphor.  The  acid  crystals  were 
melted  over  a  gentle  heat  and  poured  slowly  over  the  gum,  resulting 
in  the  absorption  of  the  camphor  and  a  final  clear,  somewhat  volatile, 
liquid  with  rather  an  agreeable  odor.  This  liquid  is  permanent 
and  may  be  kept  for  some  time  in  tight  jars.  In  fumigation  work 
3  ounces  of  this  mixture  is  volatilized  over  a  lamp  of  some  kind 
for  every  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space.  A  special  apparatus  for  the  pur- 
pose has  been  perfected  by  Dr.  H.  A.  Veazie,  of  New  Orleans,  but 
a  simple  apparatus  may  be  made  from  a  section  of  a  stovepipe,  cut 
so  as  to  have  three  legs  and  outlets  for  draft,  an  alcohol  lamp 
placed  beneath  and  a  flat-bottomed  basin  on  top.  The  substance 
is  inflammable,  but  the  vapor  is  not  explosive.  The  vapor  is  not 
dangerous  to  human  life  except  when  very  dense,  but  it  produces  a 
headache  if  too  freely  breathed.  The  writer,  on  the  8th  of  November 
of  the  epidemic  year  (1905),  took  part  in  the  fumigation  of  a  room 
containing  about  1,200  feet  of  space  in  New  Orleans  in  company 
with  Dr.  J.  H.  White,  in  charge  of  the  public  health  and  marine- 
hospital  service  operations  in  the  city  during  the  epidemic,  Dr. 
Rupert  Blue,  Doctor  Richardson,  Dr.  H.  A.  Veazie,  and  several  other 
assistant  surgeons  in  the  service.  A  number  of  specimens  of  Culex 
quinquefasciatus  were  flying  about  the  room.  There  were  two  boxes 
each  about  1  foot  long,  with  gauze  slides  containing  one-half  dozen  or 
more  mosquitoes  each  and  a  large  tube  of  2  inches  diameter  and 
possibly  1J  feet  in  length,  the  mouth  of  which  was  covered  with 
mosquito  bar  and  which  lay  on  its  side  on  the  mantelpiece  and 
contained  several  specimens  of  the  Culex.  About  6  ounces  of  the 
mixture  were  volatilized  and  the  room  was  kept  closed,  without  any 
effort  to  artificially  stop  cracks,  for  exactly  one  hour.  Upon  re- 
entering and  airing  the  room,  all  mosquitoes  were  found  to  be  dead 
and  a  cockroach  was  also  found  dead  on  the  floor,  having  come  up 
from  between  the  cracks.  The  vapor  is  lighter  than  air,  and  the 
mosquitoes  in  the  room  unnoticed  on  entrance  soon  after  fumiga- 
tion sought  the  lower  air  strata  of  the  room,  gradually  descending 
toward  the  floor  and  toward  the  windows,  which  were  on  one  side  of 
the  room  only.  Sheets  of  manila  paper  had  been  spread  before  each 
window,  and  on  these  sheets  at  the  end  of  the  hour  were  all  of  the 
mosquitoes  to  be  found  in  the  room. 

An  account  of  experiments  with  this  mixture,  containing  details 
of  apparatus,  etc.,  by  Passed  Assistant  Surgeon  Berry,  of  the  United 
37713— Bull.  88—10 3 


34         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

States  Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service,  has  been  pub- 
lished.0    The  conclusions  reached  by  Doctor  Berry  are  as  follows: 

1.  Culicide,  in  the  proportion  of  4  ounces  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  used  for  two  hours 
with  apparatus  similar  to  that  used  by  us,  kills  Culex  pungens,  Stegomyia,  and  Ano- 
pheles maculipennis  and  temporarily  stuns  the  house  fly. 

2.  In  the  proportion  of  3  ounces  to  1,000  cubic  feet  it  does  not  always  kill  the 
Anopheles  maculipennis. 

3.  Culicide  takes  fire  spontaneously  if  heated  sufficiently.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  liquid  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  flame;  it  is  also  better  to  have 
more  than  one  basin  in  a  large  space,  and  about  8  ounces  is  the  maximum  quantity 
to  use  in  one  pan.  All  large  cracks  must  be  pasted  up— the  doors  and  windows,  if  loose 
fitting.  Gummed  paper  spread  under  a  window  left  light  would  be  of  great  benefit. 
(I  concur  with  Passed  Assistant  Surgeon  Goldberger.as  to  the  closing  up  of  large 
cracks,  but  more  for  preventing  weakening  of  the  strength  of  the  gas  in  the  room 
by  diffusion  than  from  any  belief  that  insects  might  escape  from  the  room.) 

4.  In  the  minds  of  intelligent  operators,  and  used  according  to  the  methods  em- 
ployed by  us,  it  ranks  next  to  sulphur  as  an  insecticide  in  practical  fumigation. 

5.  Culicide  vaporizes  and  later  cools,  condensing  on  exposed  surfaces  again  as  it 
cools.  Whether  in  this  way  it  injures  articles  of  gilt  and  the  like  was  not  investigated. 
In  practical  work  the  only  articles  removed  from  rooms  were  foodstuffs  and  animal 
pets,  and  no  complaint  of  injury  was  received.  It  gradually  evaporates,  leaving  a 
persistent,  though  not  disagreeable,  odor. 

As  to  the  cost,  with  the  present  high  prices  of  the  ingredients  of  Culicide  the  cost  of 
fumigating  a  room  with  4  ounces  to  1,000  cubic  feet  is  16  cents  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  as 
compared  with  sulphur  at  7  cents  and  pyrethrum  at  50  cents,  using  2  pounds  of  each 
of  the  latter  per  1,000  cubic  feet.  The  estimate  does  not  take  into  consideration 
the  alcohol  used  to  evaporate  the  Culicide,  but  this  is  not  much  more,  if  any,  than 
that  used  to  ignite  pyrethrum  or  sulphur  pots.  A  further  saving  in  favor  of  Culicide 
is  that  the  apparatus  can  be  easily  carried  in  the  hands  from  place  to  place.  Had 
sulphur  been  used  in  the  instances  cited  a  wagon  would  have  been  necessary  to  trans- 
port the  materials,  which  were,  in  the  case  of  Culicide,  conveyed  in  street  cars.  The 
gang  would  have  had  to  be  larger  to  move  the  many  articles  from  a  house  necessary 
to  be  removed  in  sulphur  fumigation,  to  say  nothing  of  the  larger  amount  of  pasting  to 
be  done.  Likewise,  at  the  end  of  the  fumigation  the  time  required  to  remove  the 
apparatus  from  the  room  is  much  less.  For  this  and  other  reasons,  if  the  cost  of  the 
labor  is  counted,  I  do  not  believe  Culicide  is  much  more  expensive  than  sulphur, 
and  if  the  cost  of  the  articles  damaged  by  sulphur  is  considered,,  the  difference  would 
be  in  favor  of  Culicide. 

PYROFUME. 

Dr.  J.  H.  McCormack,  of  Mobile,  Ala.,  has  discovered  that  pyro- 
fume,  derived  by  a  fractional  distillation  from  pine  wood,  as  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  turpentine,  is  a  valuable  and  good 
fumigant  for  mosquitoes.  It  is  a  clear  liquid  of  a  straw  color;  has  a 
pungent  taste,  and  the  odor  of  pine  woods.  It  is  said  to  be  harmless 
to  mucous  membranes,  skin,  fabrics,  colors,  polished  metal,  and 
painted  woodwork.  A  report  of  the  experiments  with  this  sub- 
stance by  Passed  Assistant  Surgeon  Francis  of  the  United  States 
Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service,  has  been  published.6 

a  Public  Health  Reports  for  February  2,  1906,  vol.  21,  No.  5,  pages  83-89. 
b  Public  Health  Reports,  June  29,  1906,  vol.  21,  No.  26,  pp.  711-712. 


SMUDGES  AND   FUMIGANTS.  35 

A  summary  of  Doctor  Francis's  experimental  work  follows: 

1.  As  compared  with  sulphur,  pyrofume  stands  on  an  equal  footing  in  price. 

2.  Whereas  the  federal  regulations  require  two  hours'  exposure  to  sulphur,  pyro- 
fume is  efficient  against  mosquitoes  in  one  hour. 

3.  While  sulphur  is  injurious  to  metals,  fabrics,  paint,  and  colors,  pyrofume  leaves 
them  unchanged. 

4.  Pyrofume  is  suitable  for  fumigating  the  engine  rooms  and  cabins  of  ships,  and 
for  cars  and  fine  residences. 

5.  In  amounts  necessary  to  kill  mosquitoes  it  does  not  injure  bananas. 

6.  A  person  can  walk  about  in  a  room  full  of  fumes  and  can  sleep  without  discomfort 
in  a  room  two  hours  after  fumigation. 

7.  It  requires  only  five  minutes  to  fumigate  a  large  room  of  5,000  cubic  feet. 

8.  The  fumes  are  generated  outside  the  room  and  conducted  into  it. 

These  conclusions  were  favorable,  but  the  substance  has  not  been 
taken  up  in  the  practical  work  of  the  Public  Health  Service  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  special  contrivances  necessary  for  the  best 
application  of  the  substance  have  not  yet  been  perfected. 

SULPHUR   DIOXID. 

The  damage  done  by  sulphur  dioxid  to  household  goods  is  the 
principal  objection  to  its  use  as  a  fumigant,  but  in  the  case  of  yellow 
fever  epidemics  where  absolutely  thorough  fumigation  is  necessary 
it  is  the  most  reliable  of  all  substances  to  use.  It  was  used  prac- 
tically exclusively  in  the  antimosquito  work  during  the  yellow-fever 
outbreak  of  1905  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  Suspected  houses 
were  fumigated  in  the  most  thorough  way.  Every  effort  was  made 
to  close  all  crevices  in  the  rooms  fumigated.  Heavy  paper  was 
pasted  over  all  apertures,  including  cracks.  This  gas  is  obtained  by 
burning  flowers  of  sulphur  or  lump  sulphur  in  a  small  pot,  fire  being 
started  with  alcohol.  It  should  be  used  on  a  bright  day,  and  pots 
and  polished  metal  and  delicate  things  should  be  removed.  It  has 
been  found  that  2  pounds  of  sulphur  for  each  1,000  cubic  feet  of 
space  will  be  perfectly  efficient  against  mosquitoes  and  other 
insects.     Sulphur  candles  may  be  used  where  available. a 

Writing  of  sulphur,  Giles  objects  to  pure  sulphur  fumigation  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  burning  it,  and  suggests  a  mixture  of  1 
part  of  niter  and  charcoal  to  8  of  sulphur,  the  mixture  being  made  up  in 
pastilles  weighing  4  ounces  each,  by  means  of  a  little  gum  water,  dried 
in  the  sun.  In  India  he  burned  one  of  these  pastilles  for  every  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  space  and  found  that  the  effect  was  admirable,  and  that 
even  in  thatched  buildings  hardly  a  mosquito  escaped.  After  fumigat- 
ing, the  floor  of  a  bathroom  in  which  hardly  any  mosquitoes  could  be 
found  was  covered  with  dead  mosquitoes,  which  indicates  not  only 

a  For  an  excellent  account  of  certain  careful  experimentation  with  sulphur,  see  an 
article  by  Passed  Assistant  Surgeon  Francis,  of  the  United  States  Public  Health  and 
Marine-Hospital  Service,  published  in  Public  Health  Reports,  March  29,  1907,  vol. 
22,  No.  13,  pp.  346-348. 


36         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

the  efficacy  of  the  fumigant,  but  also  the  effectual  ways  in  which  the 
Indian  mosquitoes  hide.  He  suggests  that  the  fumigating  should 
be  done  toward  the  end  of  the  hibernating  season,  and  during  the  heat 
of  the  day,  when  practically  all  of  the  mosquitoes  are  under  shelter. 
He  urges  the  adoption  of  this  method  of  fumigation  in  all  government 
barracks,  showing  that  each  pastille  costs  no  more  than  one  Lee- 
Medford  cartridge,  and  that  the  annual  bill  for  invaliding  men  who 
have  been  educated  to  use  the  latter  is  so  heavy  that  it  would  be  well 
to  adopt  any  measure  likely  to  diminish  it. 

In  the  course  of  the  admirable  work  carried  on  during  the  last  six 
years  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  which  has  achieved  such  brilliant  results, 
it  has  been  found  that  sulphur  dioxid  has  given  the  best  results  in  the 
disinfection  of  houses.  Cruz  has  given  the  following  account  of  the 
methods  used: 

The  house  to  be  disinfected  was  completely  closed.  Every  opening  or  orifice  where 
gas  might  escape  was  sealed  with  gummed  paper.  The  furniture,  too,  after  being 
thoroughly  cleansed,  is  tightly  closed.  Metallic  or  gilded  objects  are  protected  with  a 
covering  of  vaseline.  After  the  roof  is  covered  over  with  canvas  the  garrets  are  opened 
for  the  free  access  of  sulphur  gas.  The  canvas  is  fastened  to  the  walls  with  lath. 
Then  sulphur  is  burned  in  proportion  of  10  to  20  grams  per  cubic  meter,  being  deposited 
in  several  receptacles  distributed  about  the  house  and  kept  clear  of  the  floor.  Each 
receptacle  should  not  contain  more  than  1  kilogram  [2.2  pounds]  in  order  to  insure 
complete  combustion.  In  the  vacant  spaces  under  the  roof  the  burning  sulphur  should 
be  placed  in  receptacles  set  into  others  containing  water  to  avoid  danger  of  fire.  After 
all  the  receptacles  are  placed,  the  workmen  close  up  the  only  exit  left  open  and  keep 
the  house  thus  sealed  for  not  less  than  2  hours.  The  heated  air  and  that  displaced  by 
the  sulphur  gas  escapes  through  the  crevices  of  the  roof,  but  the  mosquitoes  are  kept 
in  by  the  canvas  covering. 

In  the  admirable  fight  against  the  yellow-fever  mosquito  in  New 
Orleans  in  the  summer  of  1905,  the  following  directions  for  fumigating 
with  sulphur  dioxid  were  given  out  by  the  health  authorities: 

Remove  all  ornaments  of  metal,  such  as  brass,  copper,  silver,  and  gilt  from  the  room 
that  is  to  be  fumigated.  All  objects  of  a  metallic  nature  which  can  not  be  removed 
can  be  protected  by  covering  the  objects  tightly  with  paper,  or  with  a  thin  coating  of 
vaseline  applied  with  a  brush. 

Remove  from  the  room  to  be  fumigated  all  fabric  material  after  thoroughly  shaking. 
Open  all  drawers  and  doors  of  furniture  and  closets. 

The  room  should  be  closed  and  made  as  tight  as  possible  by  stopping  all  openings  in 
chimney,  floor,  walls,  keyholes,  and  cracks  near  windows  and  doors. 

Crevices  can  be  closed  by  pasting  strips  of  paper  (old  newspapers)  over  them  with 
a  paste  made  of  flour. 

The  sulphur  should  be  placed  in  an  iron  pot,  flat  skillet  preferred,  and  this  placed 
on  bricks  in  a  tub  or  other  convenient  water  receptacle  with  about  an  inch  of  water  in 
the  bottom.  This  is  a  precaution  which  must  be  taken  to  guard  against  accidents,  as 
the  sulphur  is  liable  to  boil  over  and  set  fire  to  the  house. 

The  sulphur  is  readily  ignited  by  sprinkling  alcohol  over  it  and  lighting  it. 

The  apartment  should  be  kept  closed  for  two  hours,  and  then  opened  up  and  well 
ventilated. 

Note.— To  find  the  cubic  contents  of  the  room,  multiply  the  length  of  the  room  by 
the  width,  and  this  total  by  the  height,  and  to  find  the  amount  of  sulphur  necessary  to 


SMUDGES  AND   FUMIGANTS.  37 

fumigate  the  room  divide  the  cubic  contents  by  500,  and  the  result  will  be  the  amount 
of  sulphur  required  in  pounds. 

Take,  for  example,  a  room  15  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  high,  we  would 
multiply  15  x  10  x  10,  equals  1,500  cubic  feet.  Divide  this  by  500  and  you  will  have 
the  amount  of  sulphur  required,  viz,  3  pounds. 

After  a  rigid  series  of  experimental  tests,  Rosenau,  of  the  U.  S.  Public 
Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service,  concludes  that  sulphur  dioxid  is 
unexcelled  as  an  insecticide.  He  shows  that  very  dilute  atmos- 
pheres of  the  gas  will  quickly  kill  mosquitoes,  and  that  it  is  quite  as 
efficacious  when  dry  as  when  moist.  He  shows  that  it  has  surprising 
power  of  penetrating  through  clothing  and  fabrics,  and  that  it  will 
kill  mosquitoes  even  when  hidden  under  four  layers  of  toweling  in  one 
hour's  time  and  with  very  dilute  proportions.  He  states  that 
although  this  substance  has  long  been  disparaged  as  a  disinfectant, 
because  it  fails  to  kill  spores,  it  must  now  be  considered  as  holding  the 
first  rank  in  disinfection  against  yellow  fever,  malaria,,  filariasis,  and 
other  insect-borne  diseases. 

OTHER   FUMIGANTS. 

In  the  early  antimosquito  work  in  European  cities  different  sub- 
stances were  experimented  with.  Fermi  and  Lumbao  in  their  out- 
lined experiments  recommend  chlorin  gas.  These  writers  advise  that 
4  or  5  spoonfuls  of  chlorid  of  lime  be  placed  in  a  dinner  plate  and  that 
from  5  to  10  cubic  centimeters  of  crude  sulphuric  acid  be  poured  upon 
it.  This  liberates  the  chlorin  gas,  which  kills  the  mosquitoes.  The 
same  writers  claim  that  the  vapors  of  chloral  act  rapidly,  killing  mos- 
quitoes in  a  few  seconds.  Celli  and  Casagrande  in  their  early  experi- 
ments in  Italy  recommend  a  substance  called  larycith  III,  which  is 
probably  a  misprint  for  larvacide.  This  is  dinitrocresol,  a  yellow 
aniline  color,  which  kills  adult  mosquitoes  when  burned  in  small  quan- 
tities. Formaldehyde  gas  was  recommended  in  1890,  but  has  been 
found  to  have  almost  no  insecticidal  value. 

Dr.  John  B.  Smith a  found  that  the  powdered  "jimson"  weed  (Da- 
tura stramonium)  can  be  burned  to  advantage  in  houses.  He  recom- 
mends 8  ounces  to  fumigate  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space.  He  states 
that  it  should  be  made  up  by  the  druggist  into  an  amount  with  niter 
or  saltpeter  1  part  to  3  parts  of  Datura,  so  as  to  burn  more  freely. 
He  states  that  the  fumes  are  not  poisonous  to  human  beings,  are  not 
injurious  to  fabrics  or  to  metals,  and  can  be  used  with  entire  safety. 
He  suggests  that  it  be  burned  in  a  tin  pan  or  on  a  shovel. 

A  long  list  of  fumigants  is  given  by  Celli  in  his  work  entitled 
" Malaria  According  to  the  New  Researches,"  and  this  list  has  received 
a  critical  review,  which  carries  at  the  same  time  the  results  of  certain 
experimental  work  by  Arthur  J.  Kendall,  in  Bulletin  No.  1  of  the 

a  Bui.  216,  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  12,  November  24,  1908. 


38         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

laboratory  of  the  board  of  health,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 
Panama,  1906.  Bulletin  No.  2  of  the  same  service  (1906)  contains  an 
account  of  experiments  in  practical  culicidal  fumigation,  also  by 
Doctor  Kendall. 

The  burning  of  dried  orange  peel  has  been  recommended  as  a  deter- 
rent against  mosquitoes,  but  there  seem  to  be  no  records  of  conclusive 
experiments,  although  the  writer  has  been  assured  of  its  efficacy  by  a 
Japanese  physician  visiting  the  United  States. 

In  the  course  of  his  experiments  with  different  disinfectants  against 
mosquitoes,  Rosenau,  of  the  U.  S.  Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital 
Service,"  did  his  principal  work  with  formaldehyde  and  sulphur  dioxid. 
We  have  mentioned  his  conclusions  with  regard  to  the  latter  substance 
in  a  previous  paragraph.  Formaldehyde  gas,  on  account  of  its  ger- 
micidal use,  was  early  suggested  against  mosquitoes  when  their 
importance  in  the  role  of  carriers  of  disease  was  ascertained,  so  that 
exact  experimentation  was  necessary.  Rosenau' s  results  were  as 
follows: 

Formaldehyde  gas  is  a  feeble  insecticide.  Mosquitoes  may  live  in  a  very  weak 
atmosphere  of  the  gas  overnight.  It  will  kill  them,  however,  if  it  is  brought  in  direct 
contact  in  the  strength  and  time  prescribed  for  bacterial  disinfection.  For  this  pur- 
pose any  of  the  accepted  methods  for  evolving  the  gas  is  applicable,  but  the  methods 
which  liberate  a  large  volume  in  a  short  time  are  more  certain  than  the  slower  ones. 

Direct  contact  between  the  insects  and  the  gas  is  much  more  difficult  to  obtain  in 
ordinary  room  disinfection  against  mosquitoes  than  against  germs,  because  the  sense 
of  self-protection  helps  the  former  to  escape  from  the  effects  of  the  irritating  gas.  They 
hide  in  the  folds  of  towels,  bedding,  clothing,  hangings,  fabrics,  and  out  of  the  way 
places,  where  the  formaldehyde  gas  does  not  penetrate  in  sufficient  strength  to  kill 
them.  The  gas  is  polymerized  and  deposited  as  paraform  in  the  meshes  of  fabrics, 
which  prevents  its  penetration,  and  large  quantities  are  lost  by  being  absorbed  by  the 
organic  matter  of  fabrics,  especially  woolens.  In  our  tests  whenever  the  insects 
were  given  favorable  hiding  places,  such  as  in  crumpled  paper  or  in  toweling,  they 
quickly  took  advantage  of  the  best  place  for  themselves  and  thus  escaped  destruction. 

There  is  a  striking  analogy  between  the  strength  of  the  gas  and  the  time  of  exposure 
necessary  to  penetrate  the  fabrics  in  order  to  kill  mosquitoes  and  the  strength  and  time 
necessary  to  penetrate  in  order  to  kill  the  spores  of  bacteria. 

Mosquitoes  have  a  lively  instinct  in  finding  cracks  or  chinks  where  fresh  air  may  be 
entering  the  room,  or  where  the  gas  is  so  diluted  that  they  escape  destruction.  They 
are  able  to  escape  through  incredibly  small  openings.  Some  of  the  smaller  varieties, 
such  as  the  Stegomyia  fasciata  can  get  through  a  wire  screen  having  12  meshes  to  the 
inch.  Therefore,  formaldehyde  gas  can  not  be  trusted  to  kill  all  the  mosquitoes  in  a 
room  which  can  not  be  tightly  sealed. 

It  was  concluded  that  to  succeed  in  killing  all  the  mosquitoes  in  a  closed  space 
with  formaldehyde  gas  the  following  definite  requirements  are  essential:  A  very  large 
volume  of  the  gas  must  be  liberated  quickly,  so  that  it  may  diffuse  to  all  portions  of 
the  space  in  sufficient  concentration.  The  room  must  have  all  the  cracks  and  chinks 
where  the  insects  may  breathe  the  fresh  air  carefully  sealed  by  pasting  strips  of  paper 
over  them.  The  room  must  not  contain  heavy  folds  of  drapery,  clothing,  bedding, 
or  fabrics  in  heaps  or  so  disposed  that  the  insects  may  hide  away  from  the  full  effects 
of  this  gas. 

a  Bui.  No.  6  of  the  Hygienic  Laboratory,  September,  1901. 


SMUDGES   AND   FUMIGANTS.  39 

MERCURIC    CHLORID. 

Surg.  G.  M.  Guiteras, a  of  the  United  States  Public  Health  and 
Marine-Hospital  Service,  has  recounted  a  series  of  experiments  with 
mercuric  chlorid,  the  use  of  which  was  first  suggested  to  him  by  G.  F. 
Matzke,  steward  on  the  American  steamer  Beecham,  who  told  Doctor 
Guiteras  that  he  had  used  it  in  the  cabin  of  his  vessel  with  success. 
Doctor  Guiteras  carried  out  a  series  of  five  experiments  in  a  room 
12  feet  high  by  15  feet  by  13J  feet,  having  a  capacity  of  2,385  cubic 
feet,  sublimating  the  mercuric  chlorid  in  a  porcelain  evaporating 
dish  over  an  alcohol  lamp.  Mosquitoes  in  cages  approximately  con- 
taining a  cubic  foot  of  space,  covered  with  wire  gauze,  were  exposed 
at  varying  elevations  in  the  room,  and  from  30  to  60  grams  of  mercuric 
chlorid  were  sublimated  at  exposures  varying  from  two  to  three  hours, 
at  temperatures  of  from  77°  to  88°  F.  Mosquitoes  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  room  were  invariably  killed,  while  some  of  those  very 
near  the  floor  escaped,  most  of  the  latter,  however,  being  killed,  and 
the  remainder  never  recovering  perfectly  except  in  one  experiment 
where  the  temperature  was  only  77°  F.  Twenty-five  grams  of 
mercuric  chlorid  were  found  to  be  sufficient  for  1,000  cubic  feet  of 
space.  He  showed  that  about  twenty  minutes  are  consumed  in  sub- 
limating 60  grams  of  the  chlorid;  that  brass  work  is  not  tarnished, 
and  that  nickel-plated  work  and  instruments  are  not  tarnished  when 
wiped  off  immediately  after  fumigation.  He  further  showed  that 
painted  surfaces  are  unaffected  unless  the  chlorid  is  sublimated  close 
to  them  and  they  are  not  immediately  wiped  off.  Moreover,  it  does 
not  affect  colored  silk,  cotton,  or  woolen  goods.  The  poisonous  quali- 
ties of  the  substance,  in  Guiteras's  opinion,  do  not  constitute  a  real 
danger.  When  the  room  was  opened  after  the  experiments,  he 
found  it  filled  with  a  thick  mist,  but  the  room  was  entered  without  any 
especial  precaution  and  the  windows  were  opened.  In  a  few  minutes 
the  vapor  was  carried  away,  leaving  a  slight  deposit  on  the  surfaces 
within  the  room.  This  was  allowed  to  remain  for  two  or  three  days, 
and  the  room  was  used  in  the  meantime  without  any  bad  results. 
The  deposit,  however,  should  have  been  removed  with  a  damp  cloth, 
and  with  this  ordinary  care,  the  experimenter  believes,  there  will  be 
no  danger  in  the  use  of  the  substance. 

The  advantages  he  considers  to  be  the  facility  of  obtaining  mercuric 
chlorid,  the  small  quantity  necessary,  and  the  simplicity  of  its  use; 
a  good  alcohol  lamp  and  a  porcelain  evaporating  dish  constitute  all 
the  machinery  necessary,  and  its  use  is  certainly  much  more  con- 
venient than  sulphur,  where  the  operators  have  to  carry  about  heavy 
iron  pots  and  barrels  of  sulphur.  As  to  expense,  he  shows  that  at  $1 
per  pound  the  25  grams  used  per  1,000  feet  cost  somewhat  less  than 

a  Public  Health  Reports,  vol.  26,  No.  50,  pp.  1859-1861,  December  10,  1909. 


40         PREVENTIVE   AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

half  a  cent,  whereas  2  pounds  of  sulphur  per  1,000  cubic  feet  would 
cost  6  cents.  Moreover,  it  is  pointed  out  that  in  practical  work  on  a 
large  scale  the  expense  and  trouble  of  hauling  the  disinfecting  equip- 
ment from  one  place  to  another  would  be  greatly  diminished.  He 
concludes  that  while  mercuric  chlorid  can  not  altogether  take  the 
place  of  sulphur,  it  has  a  hitherto  unrecognized  effect,  especially  with 
reference  to  flies  and  mosquitoes. 

APPARATUS  FOR  CATCHING  ADULT  MOSQUITOES. 

In  his  important  paper  entitled  "A  Preliminary  Account  of  the 
Biting  Flies  of  India," a  Mr.  H.  Maxwell-Lefroy,  imperial  entomolo- 
gist, describes  an  interesting  apparatus  which  he  used  to  catch  mos- 
quitoes in  his  bungalow.  In  an  account  published  in  the  United  States 
Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,6  Consul-General  William  H. 
Michael,  of  Calcutta,  mentions  this  apparatus,  stating  it  to  be  an 
invention  of  Mr.  Lefroy.  In  his  own  account,  however,  Mr.  Lefroy 
does  not  claim  it  as  his  invention. 

He  used  a  wooden  box,  lined  with  dark  green  baize  and  having  a 
hinged  door;  the  trap  was  12  inches  long,  12  inches  broad,  and  9 
inches  deep;  a  small  hole,  covered  by  a  revolving  piece  of  wood  or 
metal,  was  prepared  in  the  top  of  the  box,  and  tin  was  placed  on  the 
floor  inside.  Owing  to  the  habits  of  mosquitoes  to  seek  a  cool,  shady 
place  in  which  to  rest,  such  as  a  dark  corner  of  the  room,  or  bookshelf, 
or  something  of  the  sort,  the}"  will  enter  this  trap,  which  is  put  in  the 
part  of  the  room  most  frequented  by  mosquitoes,  all  other  dark 
places  being  rendered  uninhabitable,  so  far  as  possible.  Mr.  Lefroy 
writes: 

My  room  being  open  to  the  veranda,  hordes  of  mosquitoes  come  in,  and  as  the  room 
is  lined  with  bookshelves  there  are  many  desirable  sleeping  places.  The  trap  stands 
in  a  shady  corner,  and  a  large  number  of  mosquitoes  enter  it  when  they  come  home 
in  the  morning;  the  rest  are  usually  driven  out  of  the  bookshelves  either  with  a  duster 
or  a  little  tobacco  smoke.  Finding  this  desirable  sleeping  place  untouched,  they 
go  in;  the  door  is  then  slammed  and  fastened.  At  the  top  of  the  box  is  a  small  hole 
with  a  movable  plate  to  close  it;  through  this  a  teaspoonful  or  less  of  benzene  is  intro- 
duced and  the  plate  put  back.  After  a  little  time  all  the  mosquitoes  are  dead.  The 
box  is  taken  to  the  veranda  and  opened  there  till  the  fumes  of  benzene  escape. 

In  this  way  in  thirty  days  Mr.  LefWv  caught  2,336  mosquitoes — a 
daily  average  of  83.75;  daily  average  of  females,  22.68.  At  the 
same  time  23  of  the  biting  sand  flies  of  the  genus  Ceratopogon 
were  caught.  He  further  states  that  whereas  the  inmates  were 
before  disturbed  with  mosquitoes  and  sand  flies,  which  especially 
attacked  the  baby,  the  pest  practically  entirely  ceased.  All  of  the 
mosquitoes    were    not    exterminated,    but    so   large   a   portion    was 

a-  Bui.  No.  7,  Agricultural  Research  Institute,  Pusa,  India,  pp.  12-14,  1907. 
&Dept.  Commerce  and  Labor,  Bureau  of  Manufactures,  p.  10,  March  3,  1909. 


REMEDIES   FOR   MOSQUITO   BITES.  41 

destroyed  that   the   inmates   of  the  house  suffered  no   more.     Mr. 
Lefroy  goes  on  to  say: 

I  am  not  prepared  to  recommend  this  as  a  universal  remedy.  It  must  be  sensibly 
used;  a  small  amount  of  personal  effort  in  teaching  a  servant  is  necessary  at  first. 
But  where  mosquitoes  are  a  plague,  especially  to  little  children,  the  housekeeper's 
thirst  for  the  blood  of  the  mosquitoes  may  rise  to  so  great  a  pitch  that  she  will  welcome 
this  device  and  take  a  delight  (as  we  do)  in  counting  the  corpses  daily. 

An  interesting  homemade  apparatus  in  common  use  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States  is  very  convenient  and  effective.  It  consists  of 
a  tin  cup  or  of  a  can  cover  nailed  to  the  end  of  a  long  stick  in  such 
a  way  that  a  spoonful  or  so  of  kerosene  can  be  placed  in  the  cup, 
which  may  then,  by  means  of  the  stick,  be  pressed  up  to  the  ceiling 
so  as  to  inclose  one  mosquito  after  another.  When  pressed  up 
in  this  way  the  captured  mosquito  will  attempt  to  fly  and  be  caught 
in  the  kerosene.  By  this  method  perhaps  the  majority  of  the  mos- 
quitoes in  a  given  bedroom — certainly  all  those  resting  on  the  ceiling — 
can  be  caught  before  one  goes  to  bed. 

REMEDIES  FOR  MOSQUITO  BITES. 

It  must  have  been  the  experience  of  most  people  that  ordinarily 
little  swelling  and  irritation  result  from  the  puncture  of  a  mosquito 
where  there  has  been  no  scratching  or  rubbing  of  the  part.  But 
individuals  vary  greatly  in  this  respect,  and  it  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  not  only  do  different  species  of  mosquitoes  vary  in  their  effect, 
but  that  different  individuals  of  the  same  species  may  also  vary. 
The  application  of  household  ammonia  has  been  found  by  many  to 
give  relief,  and  alcohol  is  also  said  to  stop  the  irritation.  Dr.  E.  O. 
Peck,  of  Morristown,  X.  J.,  finds  glycerin  a  sovereign  remedy.  Touch 
the  bite  with  glycerin  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  pain  is  gone.  Dr. 
Charles  A.  Nash,  of  New  York  City,  marks  the  puncture  with  a  lump 
of  indigo  and  states  that  this  instantly  stops  the  irritation,  no  matter 
whether  the  application  is  made  immediately  or  after  the  lapse  of  a 
day  or  so.  The  most  satisfactory  remedy  known  to  the  writer  from 
his  own  personal  experience  has  been  moist  soap.  Wet  the  end  of  a 
piece  of  ordinary  toilet  soap  and  rub  it  gently  on  the  puncture  and 
speedily  the  irritation  will  pass  away.  Mr.  Charles  Stevenson,  of 
Montreal,  writing  to  the  Canadian  Entomologist  in  September,  1901, 
stated  that  he  had  found  naphthaline  moth  balls  to  afford  immediate 
relief  from  the  bites  of  dangerous  Diptera,  including  mosquitoes,  and 
that  a  friend  of  his  had  used  it  successfully  on  flea-bites.  He  advises 
rubbing  the  moth  ball  on  the  affected  part  for  a  few  minutes.  Napth- 
thaline  is  also  recommended  by  Professor  Boges,  director  of  the  na- 
tional board  of  health  at  Buenos  Aires. 

Iodin  is  frequently  recommended  for  this  purpose,  and  a  note  in  a 
recent   number  of  the  Journal  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Hygiene 


42  PREVENTIVE   AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

recommends  a  modification  in  the  shape  of  30  to  40  grains  of  iodin 
to  the  ounce  of  saponated  petroleum,  stating,  "A  few  drops  rubbed 
in  a  mosquito  bite  or  wasp  sting  allay  the  pain  instantaneously." 

Rev.  R.  W.  Anderson,  rector  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Dennis,  wrote 
us  from  Wando,  S.  C,  some  years  ago,  that  he  has  often  found  that 
by  holding  his  hand  to  a  hot  lamp  chimney  the  irritation  of  mosquito 
punctures  would  be  instantly  relieved. 

DRAINAGE  MEASURES. 

The  drainage  of  swamp  areas  for  agricultural  or  other  industrial 
reasons  needs  no  argument  nor  treatment  here.  The  value  of  re- 
claimed swamp  land  for  various  purposes  is  treated  somewhat  in 
extenso  in  a  later  section,  "Value  of  reclaimed  land."  The  drain- 
age of  swamp  areas,  primarily  in  order  to  improve  sanitary  condi- 
tions and  to  reduce  the  annoying  scourge  of  mosquitoes,  which  in 
itself  frequently  prevents  the  proper  development  of  neighboring 
regions,  is  in  operation  and  needs  no  argument;  but  it  is,  neverthe- 
less, of  recent  undertaking.  Thus,  in  drainage  a  number  of  things 
are  accomplished,  and  where  drainage  is  accompanied  by  filling,  still 
other  results  are  to  be  reached.  Drainage  on  a  small  scale  for  the 
purpose  of  doing  away  with  mosquitoes  has  been  practiced  for  a  long 
time.  In  "Mosquitoes,"  page  198,  the  writer  shows  how,  by  an  ex- 
penditure of  $40  for  drainage  in  the  summer  of  1900  in  a  Maryland 
village,  malaria  practically  ceased  to  exist,  although  the  previous 
summer  there  had  been  one  or  more  cases  in  every  family  in  the 
district. 

One  of  the  editors  of  the  Scientific  American,  Mr.  Frederick  K. 
Beech,  is  quoted  (loc.  cit.,  pp.  208-209)  as  follows: 

In  the  town  of  Stratford,  Conn.,  where  I  have  resided  for  the  past  forty-five  years, 
we  have  been  greatly  plagued  by  swarms  of  mosquitoes,  so  great,  in  fact,  that  the 
"Stratford  mosquito"  became  a  well-known  characteristic  of  Stratford.  We  have 
in  the  southern  part  of  our  town,  bordering  on  the  sound,  several  acres  of  marsh  land 
or  meadow,  which  would  become  periodically  overflowed  with  water  in  the  summer 
and  a  tremendous  breeding  ground  for  mosquitoes,  and  this  plague  to  the  town  con- 
tinued until  about  1890-91,  when  a  party  from  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  purchased  a  large 
section  of  the  meadows  and  began  to  protect  them  by  a  dike,  both  on  the  north  and 
south  ends,  which  shut  out  the  water.  In  addition  to  this,  numerous  drain  ditches 
were  made  which  helped  to  carry  the  water  away.  The  result  of  this  work  made 
the  land  perfectly  dry  and  spongy,  so  that  after  a  rain  no  pools  collected  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  meadow  and  the  creation  of  the  mosquitoes  was  prevented.  The  trans- 
formation was  so  remarkable  that  people  outside  the  town  would  hardly  believe 
that  it  had  been  effected,  and  a  year  or  two  later  the  town  voted  a  special  appro- 
priation of  $2,000  to  the  party  who  undertook  to  build  the  dike  and  render  the 
meadows  mosquito-proof,  it  had  also  the  effect  of  placing  on  the  market  a  large 
tract  of  land  elevated  from  the  sound,  for  residences,  and  as  many  as  twenty-five 
summer  residences  have  been  built  upon  this  land  bordering  on  the  sound,  and  the 
number  is  increasing  each  year.  They  are  free  from  mosquitoes,  so  that  the  opera- 
tion shows  the  economy  and  the  benefit  that  will  result  by  using  some  means  for 
eliminating  the  mosquito-breeding  pools. 


DRAINAGE   MEASURES.  43 

A  great  deal  of  valuable  drainage  work  has  been  done  in  the  past 
few  years  in  the  salt  marshes  of  the  North  Atlantic  coast,  and  there 
is  one  instance  of  this  on  the  Pacific  coast,  with  the  direct  idea  of 
doing  away  with  the  salt-marsh  mosquitoes,  several  species  of  which 
occur  in  such  localities,  all  having  unusual  power  of  flight  and  being 
able  to  proceed  inland  for  many  miles,  thus  annoying  the  inhabitants 
of  a  large  extent  of  country.  One  of  the  first  operations  of  this  kind 
was  conducted  by  the  wealthy  owners  of  Center  Island,  off  the  north 
coast  of  Long  Island,  in  Long  Island  Sound.  This  work  led  to  the 
somewhat  elaborate  work  under  the  organization  known  as  the 
North  Shore  Improvement  Association,  referred  to  elsewhere,  which 
included  simple  operations  over  a  considerable  distance  along  the 
north  shore  of  Long  Island  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Oyster  Bay.  These 
operations  took  place  in  1902  and  1903.  Later  some  excellent  work 
was  done  at  Lawrence,  Long  Island,  and  the  following  account,  taken 
from  the  "Report  of  the  New  York  State  Entomologist,"  Dr.  E.  P. 
Felt,  for  1905,  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  methods  and  results: 

A  most  striking  illustration  of  this  work  is  that  given  by  Lawrence,  L.  I.,  which  has 
amply  demonstrated  the  feasibility  of  controlling  the  salt-marsh  mosquitoes  by  rela- 
tively simple  and  comparatively  inexpensive  ditching  operations.  The  annual 
expense  is  only  about  $1,000  and  the  total  expenditure  on  these  operations  during  the 
past  four  years  does  not  exceed  $10,000,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  village  is  situated 
upon  a  narrow  neck  of  land  with  the  extensive  salt-marsh  areas  of  Jamaica  Bay  to  the 
north  and  west  and  large  marshes  south  and  east,  all  producing  in  former  days  millions 
of  mosquitoes,  which  invaded  the  village  in  swarms  with  every  favorable  breeze.  Some 
of  these  marshes  extend  almost  to  the  center  of  the  village,  which  is  so  completely 
surrounded  that  a  journey  of  2\  miles  in  almost  any  direction  will  bring  one  to  a  salt 
marsh.  More  unfavorable  conditions  for  mosquito  control  could  hardly  be  found,  and 
before  this  work  was  attempted  mosquitoes  swarmed  in  the  village  in  May  and  remained 
in  numbers  most  of  the  season.  The  second  year  swarms  did  not  invade  this  territory 
till  June,  and  last  year  it  was  the  first  of  July  before  they  appeared .  Our  investigations 
at  the  end  of  last  July  showed  that  there  were  practically  no  mosquitoes  in  the  center 
of  the  village.  It  was  our  privilege  to  sit  on  a  piazza  one  evening  when  conditions 
were  most  favorable  for  mosquito  activity.  Though  it  was  cloudy  with  only  a  little 
breeze,  and  rather  warm,  not  one  appeared.  Previous  to  this  antimosquito  work  it  was 
said  that  one  could  not  sit  on  this  piazza  without  being  covered  with  netting,  and  the 
owner  even  went  to  the  trouble  of  making  a  framework  to  hold  netting  to  suspend  over 
individual  chairs,  so  that  his  family  and  guests  could  sit  in  comfort. 

This  very  desirable  result  has  been  brought  about  by  a  draining  system  so  planned 
that  the  entire  length  or  all  the  ditches  will  be  flushed  by  every  tide.  The  general 
practice  is  to  run  these  ditches  within  about  200  feet  of  firm  ground  and  sometimes 
closer,  making  them  18  to  24  inches  in  width,  from  2  to  3  feet  deep,  with  main  ditches 
here  and  there  to  tidal  channels.  A  few  headland  ditches  are  run  into  the  more 
dangerous  swampy  areas  in  bay  like  extensions  of  the  marsh.  Such  ditches  require  no 
surveying  and  cost  only  \\  cents  a  running  foot.  A  little  experience  enables  one  to 
lay  them  out  properly  and  the  tides  make  the  determining  of  levels  extremely  easy. 
It  was  very  interesting  to  compare  the  conditions  between  ditched  areas  and  undrained 
marshes.  The  former  were  so  free  from  mosquitoes  that  one  could  tramp  upon  them 
with  practical  immunity  from  bites,  though  occasionally  a  few  mosquitoes  were  seen 
on  one's  person.     No  larvae  were  found,  and  in  fact  there  were  very  few  places  where 


44  PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

breeding  was  possible.  Undrained  marshes  presented  a  very  different  condition. 
Mosquitoes  swarming  in  adjacent  woodlands  made  driving  very  uncomfortable,  and 
when  on  the  marshes  one  was  attended  by  considerable  swarms  of  vicious  biters,  even 
in  midday.  Here  and  there  breeding  pools  were  literally  black  with  young  wrigglers. 
This  contrast  between  drained  and  undrained  areas  would  doubtless  have  been  much 
greater  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  our  inspection  was  made  during  such  a  dry  time  that 
even  undrained  marshes  presented  comparatively  few  favorable  breeding  places. 

Experience  at  Lawrence  has  shown  that  deep  ditches  with  perpendicular  sides  are 
far  more  permanent  than  shallow  ones  with  sloping  sides.  The  attempt  to  slope  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  so  that  all  the  water  will  drain  out  invariably  results  in  depressions 
which  may  become  dangerous  breeding  places  and  the  drainage  value  of  the  ditch  is 
much  lessened.  Sloping  sides  afford  opportunity  for  the  growth  of  grass  and  sedges 
with  the  result  that  the  ditch  soon  becomes  choked  with  vegetation.  The  deep  per- 
pendicular ditches  described  above  remain  entirely  free  from  vegetable  growth,  and 
with  a  little  care  in  removing  sods  and  drifting  matter  will  last  for  years.  Some  dug 
four  years  ago  were  in  perfect  condition  last  July,  though  the  grass  growing  along  the 
sides  overhung  and  almost  hid  the  ditch  from  view  in  places.  An  area  of  25  feet  on 
each  side  is  easily  drained  by  such  a  ditch.  The  village  now  has  40  miles  of  marsh 
drains,  which  require  more  or  less  attention  from  three  men  during  most  of  the  open 
season.  They  keep  the  ditches  clear,  supplementing  their  work  by  judicious  oiling 
here  and  there  wherever  mosquito  larvae  are  abundant,  and  then  have  considerable 
time  available  for  perfecting  the  system  and  ditching  more  distant  marshes.  Experi- 
ence showed  that  a  considerable  number  of  salt-marsh  mosquitoes  bred  on  that  portion 
of  Jamaica  Bay  northwest  of  the  village  were  brought  in  by  southwest  followed  by 
northeast  winds.  This  led  to  the  extension  of  ditching  operations  some  2  miles  beyond 
the  village  limits.  The  work  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Lawrence  was  done  partly 
at  public  expense  assisted  by  contributions  from  owners  benefited,  though  it  was 
impossible  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  persons  owning  the  distant  marshes,  which 
latter  were  drained  entirely  at  village  expense.  The  existence  of  such  breeding  areas 
is  an  imposition  upon  adjacent  communities,  and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  before 
public  opinion  will  demand  a  law  either  compelling  owners  to  abate  such  nuisances 
or  else  provide  for  their  suppression  at  public  expense.  The  money  invested  by 
Lawrence  in  this  work,  a  total  of  less  than  $10,000,  has  amply  justified  itself  in  vastly 
improved  conditions.  The  village  and  its  vicinity  have  been  entirely  freed  from 
breeding  places,  although  it  is  subject  to  late  summer  invasions  by  hordes  of  mosquitoes 
when  favorable  winds  bring  them  from  undrained  marshes.  Even  this  will  be  obviated 
when  the  value  of  the  work  becomes  more  generally  appreciated,  and  then  the  cost  of 
the  operations  will  be  amply  returned  in  increased  land  values,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
satisfaction  accruing  from  the  absence  of  these  dangerous  and  annoying  pests. 

On  the  north  shore  of  Long  Island,  in  Connecticut,  and  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  New  Haven,  certain  simple  ditching  operations  have 
been  carried  on  which  have  resulted,  at  a  comparative  inexpense,  in 
a  very  considerable  reduction  of  the  mosquito  supply. 

THE    CALIFORNIA    WORK. 

In  California,  in  connection  with  work  carried  on  by  the  California 
State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  in  1905,  some  excellent  work 
was  done  under  the  auspices  of  the  Burlingame  Improvement  Club, 
in  San  Francisco,  under  the  direction  of  H.  J.  Quayle,  of  the  California 
Experiment  Station.  The  territory  involved  is  included  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  San  Francisco  Peninsula,  extending  from  South  San 


DRAINAGE   MEASURES.  45 

Francisco  on  the  north  to  San  Mateo  on  the  south,  a  distance  of 
about  10  miles.  The  salt-marsh  area  included  consisted  of  a  narrow 
strip  along  the  San  Francisco  Bay  shore,  varying  from  one-half  to  2 
miles  in  width  and  10  miles  long.  No  part  of  the  area  was  continually 
covered  with  water,  and  it  is  all  above  the  lowest  high  tide.  The 
higher  tides,  however,  particularly  those  accompanying  full  moon, 
almost  completely  submerge  the  area.  The  operations,  as  described," 
are  quoted  as  follows: 

What  was  done  on  the  marsh. — The  actual  work  of  control  was  commenced  February 
27,  when  a  gang  of  men  was  started  to  work  at  ditching  on  the  salt  marsh.  This  work 
was  started  near  the  Blackhawk  dairy,  where  the  marshes  begin  north  of  Burlingame, 
it  being  the  intention  to  work  northward  toward  San  Bruno,  and  make  the  work 
permanent  as  far  as  we  would  be  able  to  go  in  a  single  season.  However,  the  work 
went  rapidly  and  the  troublesome  areas  north  of  Millbrae  were  not  so  numerous  as  was 
figured,  and  consequently  practically  the  whole  area  was  covered  during  the  past  season . 

The  ditching  in  the  Blackhawk  area  consisted  in  connecting  the  pools  and  areas  of 
standing  water  with  the  tidal  creeks  in  order  that  they  might  drain  more  rapidly  and 
before  a  brood  of  mosquitoes  would  have  time  to  develop.  The  largest  of  these  ditches 
were  12  inches  wide  and  about  15  inches  deep,  and  these  served  as  main  channels  into 
which  smaller  laterals  were  cut.  These  laterals,  and,  indeed,  the  greater  part  of  all  of 
the  ditches,  were  but  one  spade  wide,  and  one  or  two  spades  deep,  according  to  the 
depth  of  the  pool  to  be  drained.  Only  where  the  pools  were  very  large  and  a  great 
quantity  of  water  to  run  off  in  a  short  time  was  it  necessary  to  make  larger  ditches. 
By  "a  spade  "here  is  meant  the  common  California  spade,  which  is  about  6  inches  wide 
and  10  inches  high.  The  eastern  drain  spade  has  not  yet  found  its  way  to  California; 
undoubtedly  it  would  be  preferable  for  the  deeper  ditches  in  this  kind  of  work.  In 
addition  to  the  well-defined  pools,  there  was  a  considerable  area  in  the  Blackhawk 
region  which  was  covered  with  but  a  few  inches  of  water  for  a  considerable  time  after 
each  high  tide,  and  before  the  rains  ceased  in  the  spring  water  stood  over  this  area 
almost  continuously.  Such  areas  had  to  be  treated  by  making  a  number  of  parallel 
ditches  from  50  to  75  feet  apart,  in  order  to  permit  of  sufficiently  rapid  drainage. 
Rather  extensive  ditching  was  done  here  to  make  the  area  safe  while  the  rains  were 
still  continuing,  while  later  in  the  season,  when  the  rains  ceased,  it  would  have  been 
safe  with  much  less  ditching.  Small  pools  that  were  far  from  tidal  creeks  were  made 
safe  by  filling  in  rather  than  draining.  The  size  of  the  pool,  and  the  length  of  ditch 
necessary  to  drain,  will  determine  which  of  the  methods  is  to  be  followed .  In  this  way 
the  marsh  area  was  gone  over,  doing  away  with  all  the  places  where  larvae  were  found 
or  were  likely  to  be  found  for  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  along  the  bay  northward, 
where  the  diked  area  was  met  with. 

This  part  of  the  marsh  presented  a  more  difficult  problem.  The  dike,  having  been 
neglected  for  ten  or  twelve  years,  was  in  poor  condition,  and  there  were  several  breaks 
in  the  upper  end  near  Millbrae.  The  gates  were  not  in  working  order,  and  their  floors 
were  too  high  to  drain  the  area  enclosed. 

The  breaks  in  the  dike  at  the  upper  end  permitted  the  water  to  back  up  at  the  op- 
posite side,  and  this,  together  with  the  fresh  water  from  the  hills,  kept  the  water  level, 
at  almost  high  tide,  over  a  large  part  of  the  area.  To  make  matters  worse,  the  dike, 
just  after  it  was  built,  was  in  effective  operation  just  long  enough  to  thoroughly  dry  the 
ground  and  cause  it  to  crack.  These  cracks,  which  are  4  or  5  inches  wide  and  2  or  3 
feet  deep,  still  exist,  forming  a  complete  network  over  most  of  the  area.  Mosquitoes 
were  found  breeding  in  this  area,  and  it  was  next  to  impossible  to  get  over  the  ground, 

a  Bui,  178,  Univ.  of  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.,  pp.  15-21, 1906. 


46         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

even  with  waders.  A  considerable  part  of  the  area  was  submerged  to  the  depth  of  a 
foot  or  more,  thus  concealing  from  view  the  cracks  and  tidal  creeks,  which  one  was 
likely  to  fall  into  at  every  step,  and  which  made  any  attempt  at  rapid  progress  some- 
what discouraging. 

It  was  at  once  evident,  under  these  conditions,  that  if  the  area  was  to  be  controlled, 
the  dike  must  be  either  cut  through  in  a  number  of  places  in  order  to  allow  a  freer 
circulation  of  water,  or  the  breaks  must  be  repaired  and  the  gates  put  in  operation, 
and  the  water  kept  out.  The  latter  scheme  was  the  one  followed,  because  it  would  be 
possible  to  make  the  area  thoroughly  dry,  and  thus  the  results  would  be  more  certain. 
In  attempting  to  operate  the  gates  we  were  made  to  appreciate  the  effect  of  a  ten  or 
twelve  years'  coating  of  rust  on  the  large  screws  by  which  the  gates  were  manipulated. 
After  the  gates  were  put  in  operation  the  breaks  in  the  dike  were  repaired  and  the  weak 
places  strengthened.  The  largest  break  repaired  was  immediately  joining  the  upper 
gate.  This  was  30  feet  wide,  and  by  the  action  of  the  water  had  worn  down  so  that  at 
high  tide  there  was  a  depth  of  10  feet  of  water.  A  double  wall  of  sheet  piling  about 
6  feet  apart  was  sunk  here  and  the  space  between  filled  in  with  earth.  The  other 
breaks  were  repaired  by  sinking  a  single  wall  of  sheet  piling  in  the  center  and  filling 
in  on  both  sides  with  dirt. 

After  these  repairs  were  completed  the  gates  were  operated,  opened  at  low  tide  and 
closed  at  high  tide,  for  a  week,  but  at  the  end  of  this  time  there  was  still  much  water 
in  the  area,  because  the  gate  floors  were  not  low  enough  to  lower  the  water  level  suffi- 
ciently. This  made  it  necessary  to  lower  the  gate  floors  and  add  an  extension  to  the 
gates  to  reach  the  lower  level.  This  being  done  the  gates  were  again  operated  for 
several  days,  but  it  was  found  that,  due  to  seepage  of  water  through  the  dike  in 
many  places,  hand  operating  would  have  to  be  kept  up  almost  indefinitely.  It  was 
therefore  necessary  to  replace  these  old-style  gates,  operated  by  hand,  by  automatic 
ones,  and  these  were,  consequently,  put  in  at  both  the  upper  and  lower  gates,  and  the 
floors  lowered  32  and  20  inches,  respectively.  These  gates  were  made  to  swing  on  an 
axle  at  the  top,  the  lower  end  being  free  and  easily  moved  by  the  pressure  of  the 
water,  so  that  at  low  tide  it  was  opened  by  the  pressure  of  water  on  the  inside,  and 
closed  as  the  water  from  the  high  tide  rose  on  the  outside. 

This  tidal  creek,  which  served  as  an  outlet  for  the  lower  gate,  had  become  filled  in 
to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  feet  during  the  period  the  gate  was  closed,  and  this  was  cleaned 
out  for  300  or  400  yards  toward  the  bay  in  order  to  drain  out  the  area  enclosed  by  the 
dike. 

With  this  work  done  upon  the  dike  the  area  enclosed  by  it  was  treated  in  much  the 
same  way  as  that  outside,  except  that  the  network  of  cracks,  already  mentioned,  had 
to  be  filled  in  in  many  places,  and  several  of  the  tidal  creeks  deepened.  The  reward 
for  all  this  work  came  later  in  the  season  when  the  area  was  changed  from  a  veritable 
breeding  ground  to  the  safest  portion  of  the  marsh.  Indeed,  this  area  was  the  key  to 
the  situation,  and  the  excessive  abundance  of  mosquitoes  in  this  particular  territory 
was  without  doubt  due  to  this  extensive  breeding  ground. 

It  is  appropriate  to  mention  here  the  connection  of  this  work  with  the  reclamation 
of  marsh  lands.  This  tract  of  500  or  600  acres,  which  had  been  useful  only  for  duck 
hunting,  is  now  thoroughly  dry  and  could  be  put  to  agricultural  uses  at  very  little 
additional  expense.  Such  work  has  already  been  extensively  taken  up  on  the  marshes 
below  San  Mateo,  and  it  had  been  found  that  a  good  crop  of  grain  can  be  raised  on  such 
land  in  the  second  year  of  its  cultivation.  It  is  safe  to  predict  that  all  the  marsh  land 
involved  in  the  present  campaign  will  be  under  cultivation  before  many  years,  and 
because  of  its  proximity  to  the  metropolis  of  the  coast  should  be  very  valuable. 

Besides  the  marshes  already  mentioned,  permanent  control  work  was  done  on  the 
marsh  about  Millbrae  and  northward  to  San  Bruno,  and  also  some  drainage  work  at 
Coyote  Point,  opposite  San  Mateo.  The  work  at  these  places  was  much  the  same  as 
that  already  described,  and  further  details  are  unnecessary. 


DRAINAGE    MEASURES.  47 

In  addition  to  this  permanent  work,  there  was  some  oiling  done  on  the  marsh  where 
the  ditching  and  filling  work  were  not  rapid  enough  to  keep  ahead  of  a  developing 
brood.  The  total  amount  of  oil  applied,  however,  did  not  exceed  400  gallons,  and 
most  of  this  was  applied  to  the  large  tidal  creeks  in  the  reclaimed  land  opposite  San 
Mateo.  The  remainder  was  applied  to  pools  where  wrigglers  appeared  after  a  high 
tide,  and.,  the  brood  being  checked,  we  had  until  the  next  high  tide  in  which  to  make 
the  pools  permanently  safe. 

During  1908,  200  acres  of  salt-meadow  land  on  the  shore  of  Little 
Neck  Bay,  between  Bay  City  and  Douglaston,  Long  Island,  were 
drained  by  simple  ditching  measures.  This  work  was  done  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Bay  Side  Park  Association  and  the  Douglaston 
Civic  Association,  both  associations  forming  a  joint  committee  to 
exterminate  mosquitoes.  They  went  to  the  board  of  health  of  Flush- 
ing and  enlisted  its  aid  under  a  new  law  which  permits  the  board  of 
health  to  enforce  the  drainage  of  mosquito-breeding  places.  The 
board  of  health  issued  its  orders  to  the  owners  of  the  meadow  lands, 
commanding  them  to  drain  their  properties  within  ten  days.  The 
movement  was  most  successful,  and  by  October  24,  1908,  75  miles  of 
ditches  had  been  dug  on  the  Flushing  meadows,  and  the  work  was 
still  going  on. 

As  early  as  1900  excellent  antimosquito  work  was  done  on  Staten 
Island,  Xew  York,  by  the  Richmond  County  Club,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Mr.  YY  C.  Kerr,  in  the  course  of  which  considerable  drainage 
of  fresh-water  swamps  above  the  seacoast  places  was  carried  on  with 
great  success  and  at  a  minimum  of  expense.  This  work,  accom- 
panied with  the  use  of  kerosene  on  the  larger  ditches,  resulted  in 
complete  relief  from  the  attacks  of  the  fresh-water  mosquitoes,  which 
during  the  early  summer  had  previously  been  always  numerous  and 
ferocious.  But,  down  the  bluffs,  below  the  cliffs,  there  was  a  large 
area  of  salt  marsh,  and  in  the  higher  portions  of  this  marsh  land  the 
salt-marsh  mosquitoes  bred  abundantly  and  flew  up  the  bluff  in 
swarms  to  take  the  place  of  the  fresh-water  mosquitoes.  An  at- 
tempt was  made,  by  members  of  the  club,  to  buy  this  land  and  drain 
it,  but  they  were  unsuccessful.  A  few  years  later  the  meadow  was 
taken  up  by  Doctor  Doty,  the  health  officer  of  Xew  York,  who  even- 
tually began  drainage  measures,  which  have  been  carried  out  with 
persistence  and  effect.  Some  of  the  most  effective  of  any  drainage 
work  has  been  done  in  the  course  of  these  operations. 

THE    XEW    JEKSEY    WOKK. 

The  most  interesting  and  probably  the  most  important  work  of 
this  character  that  has  been  done  anywhere  in  the  world  was  perhaps 
that  undertaken  by  the  State  of  Xew  Jersey.  The  writer,  in  an 
address  on  "The  Recent  Progress  and  Present  Conditions  of  Economic 


48         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

Entomology,"  delivered  before  the  Seventh  International  Zoological 
Congress,  Boston,  August,  1907,  made  the  following  statement: 

But  the  work  done  by  Smith,  in  New  Jersey,  and  that  which  he  has  under  way  in 
his  large-scale  campaign  against  the  mosquitoes  of  that  State,  are  of  such  a  unique 
character  that  they  force  special  mention.  The  mosquito  destruction  measures  car- 
ried on  by  English  workers,  and  especially  by  those  connected  with  the  Liverpool 
School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  in  different  parts  of  the  Tropics  controlled  by  England, 
have  been  large-scale  work  of  great  value.  That  done  by  the  army  of  occupation  in 
Cuba  was  of  enormous  value,  so  far  as  the  city  of  Havana  was  concerned,  and  an 
assistant  just  returned  from  the  Isthmian  Canal  Zone  assures  me  that  it  is  possible  to 
now  sit  out-of-doors  of  an  evening  upon  an  unprotected  veranda  anywhere  in  the  Zone 
without  being  annoyed  by  mosquitoes,  and  without  danger  of  contracting  malaria  or 
yellow  fever. 

These  are  all  great  pieces  of  work,  but  when  we  consider  the  condition  that  exists 
in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  indefatigable  and  successful  work  of  Smith  in  the 
handling  of  the  most  difficult  problem  of  the  species  that  breed  in  the  salt  marshes, 
and  of  his  persistent  and  finally  successful  efforts  to  induce  the  state  legislature  of 
that  wealthy  but  extremely  economical  State  to  appropriate  a  large  sum  of  money 
to  relieve  New  Jersey  from  its  characteristically  traditional  pest — we  must  hold  up 
our  hands  in  admiration. 

Chapter  134,  of  the  Laws  of  1906  for  New  Jersey,  which  went  into 
effect  on  November  1,  1906,  the  passage  of  which  was  largely  due  to 
the  efforts  of  Doctor  Smith,  is  so  interesting  and  important  in  this 
connection  that  it  is  quoted  in  full,  to  wit : 

AN  ACT  to  provide  for  locating  and  abolishing  mosquito-breeding  salt-marsh  areas  within  the  State,  for 
assistance  in  dealing  with  certain  inland  breeding  places,  and  appropriating  money  to  carry  its  pro- 
visions into  effect. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey: 

1. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  director  of  the  state  experiment  station,  by  himself 
or  through  an  executive  officer  to  be  appointed  by  him  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  to  survey  or  cause  to  be  surveyed  all  the  salt-marsh  areas  within  the  State, 
in  such  order  as  he  may  deem  desirable,  and  to  such  extent  as  he  may  deem  necessary, 
and  he  shall  prepare  or  cause  to  be  prepared  a  map  of  each  section  as  surveyed,  and 
shall  indicate  thereon  all  the  mosquito-breeding  places  found  on  every  such  area, 
together  with  a  memorandum  of  the  method  to  be  adopted  in  dealing  with  such 
mosquito-breeding  places  and  the  probable  cost  of  abolishing  the  same. 

2. — It  shall  be  the  further  duty  of  said  director,  in  the  manner  above  described,  to 
survey,  at  the  request  of  the  board  of  health  of  any  city,  town,  township,  borough,  or 
village  within  the  State,  to  such  extent  as  may  be  necessary,  any  fresh-water  swamp 
or  other  territory  suspected  of  breeding  malarial  or  other  mosquitoes,  within  the  juris- 
diction of  such  board,  and  he  shall  prepare  a  map  of  such  suspected  area,  locating 
upon  it  such  mosquito-breeding  places  as  may  be  discovered,  and  shall  report  upon 
the  same  as  hereinafter  provided  in  section  eight  of  this  act.  Requests  as  herein- 
before provided  for  in  this  section  may  be  made  by  any  board  of  health  within  the 
State,  upon  its  own  motion,  and  must  be  made  upon  the  petition,  in  writing,  of  ten 
or  more  freeholders  residing  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  such  board. 

3. — Whenever,  in  the  course  of  a  survey  made  as  prescribed  in  section  one  of  this  act, 
it  is  found  that  within  the  limits  of  any  city,  town,  borough,  or  village  there  exists 
points  or  places  where  salt-marsh  mosquitoes  breed,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  director 
aforesaid,  through  his  executive  officer,  to  notify,  in  writing,  by  personal  service 
upon  some  officer,  or  member  thereof,  the  board  of  health  within  whose  jurisdiction 
such  breeding  points  or  places  occur,  of  the  extent  and  location  of  such  breeding 


DRAINAGE   MEASURES.  49 

places,  and  such  notice  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  copy  of  the  map  prepared  as  pre- 
scribed in  section  one,  and  of  the  memorandum  stating  the  character  of  the  work  to  be 
done  and  its  probable  cost,  also  therein  provided  for.  It  shall  thereupon  become  the 
duty  of  the  said  board,  within  twenty  days  from  the  time  at  which  notice  is  served  as 
aforesaid,  to  investigate  the  ownership,  so  far  as  ascertainable,  of  the  territory  on  which 
the  breeding  places  occur,  and  to  notify  the  owner  or  owners  of  such  lands,  if  they 
can  be  found  or  ascertained,  in  such  manner  as  other  notices  of  such  boards  are  served, 
of  the  facts  set  out  in  the  communication  from  the  director,  and  of  the  further  fact 
that,  under  chapter  sixty-eight  of  the  laws  of  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty- 
seven,  as  amended  in  chapter  one  hundred  and  nineteen  of  the  laws  of  one  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  four,  any  water  in  which  mosquito  larvae  breed  is  a  nuisance  and 
subject  to  abatement  as  such.  Said  notice  shall  further  contain  an  order  that  the  nui- 
sance, consisting  of  mosquito-breeding  pools,  be  abated  within  a  period  to  be  stated, 
and  which  shall  not  be  more  than  sixty  days  from  the  date  of  said  notice,  failing  which 
the  board  would  proceed  to  abate,  in  accordance  with  the  act  and  its  amendments 
above  cited. 

4. — In  case  any  owner  of  salt-marsh  lands  on  which  mosquito-breeding  places  occur 
and  upon  whom  notice  has  been  served  as  above  set  out,  fails  or  neglects  to  comply 
with  the  order  of  the  board  within  the  time  limited  therein,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
said  board  to  proceed  to  abate  under  the  powers  given  in  sections  thirteen  and  fourteen 
of  the  act  and  its  amendments  cited  in  the  preceding  section,  or,  in  case  this  is  deemed 
inexpedient,  it  shall  certify  to  the  common  council  or  other  governing  body  of  the 
city,  town,  township,  borough,  or  village  the  facts  that  such  an  order  has  been  made 
and  that  it  has  not  been  complied  with,  and  it  shall  request  such  council  or  other  gov- 
erning body  to  provide  the  money  necessary  to  enable  the  board  to  abate  such  nuisance 
in  the  manner  provided  by  law.  It  shall  thereupon  become  the  duty  of  such  governing 
body  to  act  upon  such  certificate  at  its  next  meeting  and  to  consider  the  appropriation 
of  the  money  necessary  to  abate  the  nuisance  so  certified.  If  it  be  decided  that  the 
municipality  has  no  money  available  for  such  purpose,  such  decision  shall  be  trans- 
mitted to  the  board  of  health  making  the  certificate,  which  said  board  shall  thereupon 
communicate  such  decision  forthwith  to  the  director  of  the  agricultural  experiment 
station  or  his  executive  officer. 

5. — If,  in  the  judgment  of  the  director  aforesaid,  public  interests  will  be  served 
thereby,  he  may  set  aside  out  of  the  moneys  appropriated  by  this  act  such  an  amount 
as  may  be  necessary  to  abate  the  nuisance  found  existing  and  to  abolish  the  mosquito- 
breeding  places  found  in  the  municipality  which  has  declared  itself  without  funds 
available  as  prescribed  in  the  preceding  section.  Notice  that  such  an  amount  has 
been  set  aside  as  above  described  shall  be  given  to  the  board  of  health  within  whose 
jurisdiction  such  mosquito-breeding  places  are  situated,  and  said  board  shall  there- 
upon appoint  some  person  designated  by  said  director  or  his  executive  officer  a  special 
inspector  of  said  board  for  the  sole  purpose  of  acting  in  its  behalf  in  abating  the  nuisance 
found  to  be  existing,  and  all  acts  and  work  done  to  abate  such  nuisances  and  to  abolish 
such  breeding  places  shall  be  done  in  the  name  of  and  on  behalf  of  such  board  of  health. 

6. — If  in  the  proceeding  taken  under  section  four  of  this  act  the  common  council  or 
other  governing  body  of  any  municipality  appropriate  to  the  extent  of  fifty  per  centum 
or  more  of  the  money  required  to  abate  the  nuisance  and  to  abolish  the  mosquito- 
breeding  places  within  its  jurisdiction  it  shall  become  the  duty  of  said  director  of  the 
agricultural  experiment  station  to  set  aside  out  of  the  moneys  herein  appropriated 
such  sum  as  may  be  necessary  to  complete  the  work,  and  in  all  cases  preference  shall 
be  given,  in  the  assignment  of  moneys  herein  appropriated,  to  those  municipalities 
that  contribute  to  the  work  and  in  order  of  the  percentage  which  they  contribute; 
those  contributing  the  highest  percentage  to  be  in  all  cases  preferred  in  order. 

7. — In  all  cases  where  a  municipality  contributes  fifty  per  centum  or  more  of  the 
estimated  cost  of  abolishing  the  breeding  places  for  salt-marsh  mosquitoes  within  its 
37713— Bull.  88—10 4 


50         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

jurisdiction,  the  work  may  be  done  by  the  municipality  as  other  work  is  done  under 
its  direction,  and  the  amount  set  aside  as  provided  in  section  six  may  be  paid  to  the 
treasurer  or  other  disbursing  officer  of  such  municipality  for  use  in  completing  the 
work;  but  no  payment  shall  be  made  to  such  treasurer  or  other  disbursing  officer  until 
the  amount  appropriated  by  the  municipality  has  been  actually  expended,  nor  until 
a  certificate  has  been  filed  by  the  director  or  his  executive  officer  stating  the  work 
already  done  is  satisfactory  and  sufficient  to  obtain  the  desired  result,  and  that  the 
arrangements  made  for  its  completion  are  proper  and  can  be  carried  out  for  the  sum 
awarded. 

8. — In  all  investigations  made  under  section  two  of  this  act  the  report  to  be  made 
to  the  board  of  health  requesting  the  survey  shall  state  what  mosquitoes  were  found 
in  the  territory  complained  of,  whether  they  are  local  breeders  or  migrants  from  other 
points,  and,  in  the  case  of  migrants,  their  probable  source,  whether  the  territory  in 
question  is  dangerous  or  a  nuisance  because  of  mosquito  breeding,  the  character  of 
the  work  necessary  to  abate  such  nuisance  and  abolish  the  breeding  places,  and  the 
probable  cost  of  the  work.  Said  board  of  health  must  then  proceed  to  abolish  the 
breeding  places  found  under  the  general  powers  of  such  boards,  but  if  it  shall  appear 
that  the  necessary  cost  of  the  work  shall  equal  or  exceed  the  value  of  the  land  without 
increasing  its  taxable  value,  such  board  may  apply  to  the  director  aforesaid,  who  may, 
if  he  deems  the  matter  of  sufficient  public  interest,  contribute  to  the  cost  of  the  neces- 
sary work,  provided  that  not  more  than  fifty  per  centum  of  the  amount  shall  be  con- 
tributed in  any  case,  and  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  in  any  one  municipality. 

9. — All  moneys  contributed  or  set  aside  out  of  the  amount  appropriated  in  this  act 
by  the  director  of  the  agricultural  experiment  station  in  accordance  with  its  provisions 
shall  be  paid  out  by  the  comptroller  of  the  State  upon  the  certificate  of  said  director 
that  all  the  conditions  and  requirements  of  this  act  have  been  complied  with,  and  in 
the  case  provided  for  in  section  five  payments  shall  be  made  to  the  contractor  upon  a 
statement  by  the  person  in  charge  of  the  work,  as  therein  prescribed,  attested  by  said 
director,  showing  the  amount  due  and  that  the  work  has  been  completed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  specifications  of  his  contract. 

10. — For  the  purpose  of  carrying  into  effect  the  provisions  of  this  act,  the  said 
director  of  the  state  agricultural  experiment  station  shall  have  power  to  expend  such 
amount  of  money,  annually,  as  may  be  appropriated  by  the  legislature;  provided, 
that  the  aggregate  sum  appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  this  act  shall  not  exceed 
three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  The  comptroller  of  the  State  shall  draw 
his  warrant  in  payment  of  all  bills  approved  by  the  director  of  the  state  experiment 
station,  and  the  treasurer  of  the  State  shall  pay  all  warrants  so  drawn  to  the  extent 
of  the  amount  appropriated  by  the  legislature. 

11. — This  act  shall  take  effect  November  first,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  six. 

Approved  April  20,  1906. 

This  law  was  drafted  only  after  the  most  careful  observations  by 
Doctor  Smith  and  his  assistants,  and  after  they  had  made  themselves 
perfectly  familiar  with  the  conditions  existing  in  the  salt-marsh  area 
in  Xew  Jersey  and  with  the  exact  life  histories  of  the  different  species 
of  mosquitoes  involved,  and  also  after  preliminary  drainage  work  had 
been  undertaken  and  carried  to  successful  conclusion  over  part  of 
the  area  without  the  assistance  of  state  funds. 

Doctor  Smith  had  found  that  three  species,  of  approximately 
similar  habits,  develop  in  the  salt  marshes  of  Xew  Jersey  and  migrate 
inland  for  long  distances — up  to  40  miles  in  some  instances — thus 
making  local  work  on  the  part  of  inland  communities  by  no  means 


DRAINAGE   MEASURES.  51 

perfectly  efficient.  Citizens'  organizations  had,  for  example,  done 
excellent  work  in  the  way  of  destroying  household  and  other  fresh- 
water breeding  mosquitoes,  in  South  Orange,  Summit,  and  other 
inland  towns;  but  occasional  inland  migrations  of  swarms  of  salt- 
water species  necessitated  the  retention  of  house  screens  and  dis- 
couraged the  community  workers.  The  salt-marsh  species  Doctor 
Smith  found  to  be  Aides  cantator,  A.  sollicitans,  and  A.  txniorhynchus. 
The  former  is  the  more  northern  and  earliest,  forming  the  bulk  of 
the  specimens  on  the  marshes  north  of  the  Raritan  River.  South  of 
that  point  cantator  makes  an  early  brood  only  and  sollicitans  is  the 
abundant  species  during  the  rest  of  the  season  until  late  fall,  when 
cantator  sometimes  reappears.  He  finds  that  tseniorhynchus  is  never 
so  common  as  the  others  and  is  a  midsummer  species.  It  was  a 
most  important  discovery  when  Doctor  Smith  and  his  assistants 
found  that  all  of  these  species  laid  their  eggs  in  the  marsh  mud,  and 
that  these  eggs  may  retain  their  vitality  for  three  years,  even  if 
repeatedly  covered  with  water.  He  found  that  every  time  a  marsh 
becomes  water-covered  some  eggs  hatch,  and  if  the  water  remains 
long  enough  the  larvae  reach  maturity.  On  account  of  the  possible 
long  duration  of  the  egg  stage  the  problem  seemed  to  be  to  permit 
or  even  favor  the  hatching  of  all  of  the  eggs,  and  then  to  provide 
for  the  removal  of  the  water  so  rapidly  that  none  of  the  larvae  could 
come  to  maturity. 

To  accomplish  this  end  a  system  has  been  developed  by  which  the 
force  working  under  the  state  entomologist  makes  deep,  narrow 
ditches  in  the  salt-marshes  by  means  of  special  machinery.  These 
ditches  are  30  inches  deep  and  10  inches  wide,  the  sides  being  per- 
pendicular. The  upper  12  or  18  inches  of  the  ordinary  salt  marsh 
is  peat  or  turf,  and  the  water  drains  readily  from  it.  Below  this 
peat  is  sand,  mud,  or  clay ;  and  at  30  inches  a  depth  has  been  reached 
which  is  below  high-water  mark  and  below  the  point  at  which  vege- 
tation is  likely  to  start.  The  ditches  are  placed  from  50  to  200  feet 
apart,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  marsh,  but  more  often 
200  feet  apart  than  less. 

Anticipating  the  ultimate  passage  of  a  state  bill,  work  of  this  char- 
acter was  begun  on  the  Shrewsbury  River  in  1902,  and  at  the  present 
time  both  shores  are  now  drained  to  the  full  length  of  the  river. 
In  1903-1904  the  marsh  areas  belonging  to  the  cities  of  Elizabeth 
and  Newark  were  drained  at  the  expense  of  the  cities,  and  in  1906 
systematic  drainage  work  was  begun  at  the  Hackensack  marshes  and 
continued  along  the  shores  of  Middlesex  and  Monmouth  counties, 
along  both  shores  of  the  Raritan  River,  and  along  the  numerous 
small  rivers  and  creeks  running  into  the  Newark  and  Raritan  bays 
and  into  the  Arthur  Kill. 


52         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

During  the  year  1906,  and  in  the  preceding  experimental  work, 
4,900  acres  of  marsh  land  were  drained  and  710,000  feet  of  ditches 
were  put  in.  During  the  season  of  1907,  10,951  acres  of  territory 
were  cleaned  up  and  1,505,524  feet  of  ditching  were  put  in.  During 
the  season  of  1908,  6,669  acres  of  marsh  land  were  dealt  with  and 
888,650  feet  of  ditching  was  made.  Out  of  the  1909  appropriation 
2,672  acres  of  marsh  were  drained  with  329,800  feet  of  ditching. 
This  gives  a  grand  total  of  25,192  acres  of  marsh  land  and  3,633,974 
feet  of  ditches. 

The  area  extends  from  the  Hackensack  at  Secaucus  to  the  mouth 
of  Toms  River  on  Barnegat  Bay,  a  distance  of  nearly  70  miles  of 
shore  line.  In  addition  there  are  about  10  miles  on  Long  Beach  in 
which  experimental  work  was  done  among  the  sand  hills,  in  the 
pockets  where  the  marsh  mosquitoes  bred  whenever  there  was  a 
storm  or  a  storm  tide  to  fill  them.  Here  no  ditches  could  be  made 
because  the  layer  of  turf  was  very  thin  and  below  it  was  sand.  Nor 
could  outlets  be  obtained  to  tidewater  without  the  expenditure  of 
disproportionately  large  sums. 

The  smaller  depressions  were  filled  with  brush  held  in  place  by  a 
layer  of  sand,  and  this  served  to  gather  and  hold  the  blowing  sand 
in  high  winds,  causing  a  complete  rilling  after  a  year  or  two.  The 
larger  depressions  were  drained  to  a  center  where  a  pond  varying 
from  6  to  15  feet  square  was  dug  3  or  4  feet  deep  and  a  large  barrel 
sunk  into  the  center.  This  brought  the  line  down  below  the  level 
of  the  bay  and  kept  water  permanently  present;  in  fact,  there  was 
an  appreciable  rise  and  fall  of  water  with  the  tides,  and  it  gave 
outlet  to  all  the  water  that  drained  naturally  to  these  low  points. 
Ditches  were  dug  along  the  natural  drainage  lines  to  these  ponds, 
and  the  latter  were  then  stocked  with  killies  (Fundulus  sp.).  Some 
of  these  pools  are  now  three  years  old,  and  the  fish  have  multiplied. 
Altogether  this  plan  has  worked  well  and  required  little  looking  after. 

As  to  the  amount  expended,  the  state  appropriations  make  a  total 
of  $58,500.  About  $10,000  has  been  spent  by  various  municipalities, 
and  probably  $75,000  would  cover  what  has  been  spent  in  marsh- 
mosquito  work  in  New  Jersey,  counting  in  the  local  improvements 
made.     This  includes  also  the  cost  of  administration  since  1905. 

The  total  estimated  cost  of  the  marsh  work  in  the  State  is  $350,000, 
and  up  to  date  the  cost  of  the  work  actually  done  is  within  the 
amount  estimated  for  that  work. 

The  work  has  been  entirely  original  in  its  character,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  observations  upon  the  most  unexpected  habits  of  the 
insects,  through  the  development  of  special  machinery,  and  the  ascer- 
taining of  the  important  fact  that  this  simple  and  very  rapid  and 
economic  form  of  drainage  meets  the  important  requirement  of 
stopping  the  breeding  of  these  extremely  annoying  migratory  forms. 


THE   VALUE   OF   RECLAIMED   LANDS.  53 

The  writer  has  visited  the  marshes,  has  seen  the  excellent  results  of 
the  work  accomplished,  and  has  watched  the  active  operation  of 
digging  the  ditches.  It  is  possible  to  walk  with  dry  feet  over  the 
drained  marshes,  and  the  crop  of  hay  the  first  year  after  ditching 
doubles  in  quantity. 

A  bit  of  work  excellent  in  its  results  and  very  economical  in  its 
cost,  in  the  way  of  the  drainage  of  an  upland  marsh,  is  described  by 
Doctor  Smith  in  his  report  for  1908.  A  new  normal  school  was 
about  to  be  constructed  on  Montclair  Heights,  and  there  were  swampy 
areas  near  by  which  a  committee  of  the  state  board  of  education  con- 
sidered to  be  dangerous  as  mosquito-breeding  places.  Doctor  Smith 
caused  an  inspection  to  be  made  early  in  April,  and  found  that 
there  was  a  danger  point  in  which  not  only  the  ordinary  pool  mos- 
quitoes but  malarial  mosquitoes  could  develop.  At  a  cost  of  $250, 
3,000  feet  of  ditching  was  placed  or  improved,  and  all  the  surface 
water  was  drained  to  a  culvert  through  a  railroad  embankment. 
The  heavy  rains  of  May  gave  excellent  opportunity  for  testing 
the  effectiveness  of  the  work,  and  no  mosquito  breeding  was  found 
there  throughout  the  season. 

THE  VALUE  OF  RECLAIMED  LANDS. 
GENERAL   RECLAMATION    WORK. 

The  general  value  of  lands  reclaimed  from  swamps  is  obvious. 
Practically  all  of  Holland  has  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea.  Large 
areas  of  the  most  valuable  farming  land  in  the  world  have  been  re- 
claimed from  nonproductive  swamps.  To  the  nonproductiveness  of 
swamp  land  must  be  added  the  great  danger  that  exists  in  its  contin- 
uance through  the  invariable  presence  of  disease-bearing  mosquitoes. 
The  drainage  of  swamps  not  only  destroys  unlimited  breeding  places 
of  mosquitoes,  but  vastly  increases  the  value  of  the  land  for  farming 
purposes  and  for  other  utilitarian  uses.  Either  reason  amply  pays  for 
the  operation.  The  late  Prof.  N.  S.  Shaler,  in  his  report  to  the  North 
Shore  Improvement  Association,  showed  that  fields  gained  by  marsh 
drainage  possess  the  greatest  fertility  and  their  endurance  to  cropping 
without  manuring  exceeds  that  of  any  other  agricultural  land  except 
possibly  arid  regions  which  are  irrigated.  The  range  of  crops  is  great 
and  includes  all  ordinary  farm  and  garden  crops  except  in  some 
places  Indian  corn.  Reclaimed  swamp  lands  are  especially  adapted 
for  truck  farming,  because  it  is  easy  to  maintain  the  level  of  under- 
ground water  where  the  roots  of  the  plants  can  reach  it.  Professor 
Shaler  shows  that  the  larger  part  of  the  best  irrigable  land  in  Holland, 
and  much  of  that  in  Belgium,  northern  Germany,  and  eastern  England 
has  been  gained  from  what  was  originally  tidal  fields.  He  estimates 
not  less  than  10,000  square  miles  in  those  countries  to  have  been 
redeemed  in  this  way. 


54         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

The  only  large  example  of  diked  and  improved  marshes  in  the  north- 
eastern United  States  is  at  Green  Harbor,  Mass.,  where  1,200  acres 
have  been  won  to  tillage,  about  one-half  being  used  for  hay  fields 
and  the  other  for  different  crops.  The  result  obtained  in  the  farm- 
ing of  this  land  is  excellent.  Asparagus  has  produced  large  crops 
continuously  for  more  than  twenty  years  without  the  use  of  any 
fertilizer. 

Prof.  Milton  Whitney,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  some  years  ago  drew  up  the  follow- 
ing statement  at  the  request  of  the  writer,  concerning  the  value  of 
reclaimed  swamp  land: 

Swamp  lands,  by  virtue  of  their  position,  become  the  repository  of  highly  fertile 
material  washed  from  the  uplands  by  the  rains.  As  a  general  rule,  the  immediate 
surface  of  any  soil  is  the  most  fertile  portion  of  that  soil,  resulting  from  the  fact  that 
this  surface  material  is  in  physical  condition,  and  most  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
weather,  the  sun,  rains,  and  air.  This  surface  is  the  first  portion  removed  during 
rains,  and  is  the  portion  carried  down  into  the  swamps  and  deposited.  When  erosion 
goes  on  at  such  a  rapid  rate  that  both  the  surface  and  the  underlying  raw  soil  are 
washed  away,  the  resulting  bottom  land  deposit  is  frequently  sterile.  Witness  the 
mud  flats  and  swamps  along  the  Sacramento  River,  in  California,  which  have  been 
covered  with  mud  from  the  hydraulic  mines  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas.  Here  large  areas 
have  been  ruined  by  the  mud,  and  will  not  become  fertile  until  the  weather  has 
acted  upon  the  material  long  enough  to  make  the  soil  an  acceptable  medium  for  plant 
growth.  Fortunately,  most  of  our  lowlands  and  swamps  receive  only  the  more  gentle 
washing  or  the  most  fertile  materials  from  the  uplands. 

Swamp  lands  contain  an  unusual  amount  of  organic  matter,  and  for  that  reason 
are  easy  to  maintain  in  proper  tilth,  light  to  work,  and  warm.  From  their  low  position, 
water  is  generally  abundant,  or  easy  to  obtain  for  irrigation  by  pumping  or  diversion 
from  nearby  streams. 

Swamp  lands  and  tide  marshes  are  considered  the  most  valuable  of  lands  in  the 
world's  older  countries.  Their  inherent  fertility  is  recognized,  and  the  ease  with 
which  they  are  cultivated  and  irrigated  is  greatly  appreciated.  In  England  for  two 
hundred  years  the  tide  lands  have  been  under  reclamation,  and  to-day  over  1,000,000 
acres  are  in  a  "matchless  state  of  fertility." 

In  Holland  extensive  areas  have  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea.  The  greater  part 
of  the  country  lies  at  or  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  reclaimed  from  a  jungle  of 
swamps  and  savannas.  Holland  to-day  represents  one  of  the  most  successful  attempts 
at  swamp  reclamation.  Lakes  have  been  drained  by  diking  and  pumping,  and  plans 
are  now  on  foot  to  drain  the  Zuyder  Zee,  an  arm  of  the  ocean. 

In  our  own  country  swamp  reclamation  has  been  carried  out  on  a  large  scale  in  the 
Middle  Western  States.  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  have  great 
areas  of  productive  land  once  swamp  but  now  the  most  fertile  and  reliable  land  in 
those  States.  The  tide  marshes  around  Puget  Sound,  in  Washington,  have  been 
lying  untouched  until  within  the  last  few  years,  but  the  recent  great  influx  of  Scandi- 
navians has  resulted  in  a  movement  toward  the  reclamation  of  these  lands,  and  excel- 
lent farms  are  being  established. 

In  California  one  of  the  greatest  areas  of  swamp  peat  land  in  the  world  lies  in  the 
Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta.  Over  1,500,000  acres  of  peat  from  6  to  40  feet  thick 
are  ready  for  reduction  in  productive  capacity,  and  to-day  large  areas  are  being 
reclaimed.  Yields  of  500  bushels  of  potatoes,  6,000  pounds  of  asparagus,  60  bushels 
of  barley  and  oats  have  been  common,  and  with  proper  farming  such  yields  should 
continue  to  be  common. 


THE  VALUE   OF   RECLAIMED   LANDS.  55 

Wherever  properly  reclaimed  swamp  lands  are  found  their  fertility  is  recognized; 
almost  without  exception  they  are  more  fertile  than  surrounding  uplands.  They  are 
frequently  used  in  special  crop  production,  such  as  in  growing  celery,  asparagus, 
cranberries,  or  onions,  but  in  dairying  or  general  farming  they  are  unexcelled  as  per- 
manent pasture  or  hay  land.  The  consensus  of  opinion  in  districts  where  swamps 
have  been  reclaimed  and  farmed  for  many  years  is  that  there  is  no  more  valuable  por- 
tion of  the  farm  than  the  swamp,  properly  reclaimed. 

There  is  much  swamp  land  in  the  United  States  within  easy  reach 
of  the  best  markets.  New  Orleans  is  surrounded  by  swamps,  but 
here  the  problem  of  reclamation  is  rendered  exceedingly  difficult 
owing  to  the  vast  area  involved  and  the  periodic  invasion  by  the 
Mississippi  River  in  front,  and  Lakes  Borgne  and  Pontchartrain  in 
the  rear.  The  city  of  New  York  is  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  vast  areas  of  swamps  and  marshes,  and  even  the  partial  drainage 
of  this  land  is  being  productive  of  admirable  results.  The  great 
value  of  stable  land  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  for  manufacturing 
purposes  is  uncontested,  and  even  the  partial  drainage  of  the  breeding 
places  of  salt-marsh  mosquitoes  in  portions  of  New  Jersey  adjacent 
to  New  York  has  resulted,  aside  from  limiting  the  mosquito  supply, 
in  the  increase  in  value  of  the  lands  to  the  owners.  After  the 
first  ditching  the  crop  of  salt  hay  nearly  doubles.  The  operations 
carried  on  conjointly  between  the  city  of  Brooklyn  and  the  town  of 
Sheepshead  Bay,  a  few  years  ago,  showed  the  remunerative  results 
to  be  obtained  by  simple  and  beneficial  operations.  The  contents 
of  the  ash  barrels  of  the  city  of  Brooklyn  were  conveyed  out  into  the 
salt  marshes  upon  specially  constructed  trolley  tracks  and  in  large 
metal  tanks.  The  tanks  were  so  made  that  upon  reaching  the  ter- 
minus they  were  taken  up  by  machinery,  carried  out  by  an  overhead 
trolley  line,  and  by  machinery  dumped  at  a  given  spot.  In  this  way 
some  hundreds  of  acres  of  salt  marsh  were  covered  with  a  12-foot 
layer  of  the  contents  of  the  ash  barrels  of  Brooklyn.  The  layer  was 
packed  down  by  water  and  contained  so  much  organic  matter  that 
almost  immediately  grass  and  sunflowers  began  to  grow.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  year  enough  soil  had  formed  so  that  Italians  had 
begun  to  plant  cabbages  and  other  vegetables. 

The  Government  is  taking  up  the  subject  of  reclamation  of  swamp 
lands  through  its  Reclamation  Service,  and  extensive  surveys  are 
being  made  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  Under  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  appropriations  have  been 
made  for  some  years  to  enable  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  inves- 
tigate and  report  upon  the  drainage  of  swamps  and  other  wet  lands 
and  to  prepare  plans  for  the  removal  of  surplus  waters  by  drainage. 

A  number  of  interesting  and  important  publications  have  already 
been  issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  two  of 
which  are  of  general  interest,  namely,  Circular  No.  74,  Office  of 
Experiment    Stations,    Excavating    Machinery    Used    for    Digging 


56         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

Ditches  and  Building  Levees,  by  J.  O.  Wright  (pp.  40,  figs.  16) ;  and 
Circular  No.  76,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  The  Swamp  and  Over- 
flowed Lands  of  the  United  States,  by  J.  O.  Wright  (pp.  23,  pi.  1). 
The  first  of  these  publications  described  the  use  and  construction  of 
different  classes  of  dredges,  including  dipper,  clam-shell,  rotary,  roller, 
scraper,  elevator,  and  hydraulic  dredges,  and  drag  boats ;  first  cost 
and  cost  of  operation  of  dredges;  machines  for  building  levees; 
machine  for  tile  ditching.  The  second  gives  an  estimate  of  the  area 
of  swamp  lands  in  the  different  States,  its  ownership,  present  value, 
cost  of  reclamation,  and  probable  value  when  reclaimed,  and  dis- 
cusses the  state  laws  relating  to  drainage.  It  is  shown  in  the  lat- 
ter circular  that  there  are  in  the  United  States  119,972  square  miles 
of  swamp  lands,  an  area  which,  collected  together,  would  be  as  large 
as  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales  together,  or  larger  than  the 
six  New  England  States,  New  York,  and  the  northern  half  of  New 
Jersey.  It  would  make  a  strip  133  miles  wide  reaching  from  New 
York  to  Chicago.  Not  all  of  this  swamp  land,  however,  is  suited 
for  agriculture,  but  from  the  data  collected  by  the  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  it 
seems  certain  that  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  there 
are  77,000,000  acres  that  can  be  reclaimed  and  made  fit  for  cultiva- 
tion by  the  building  of  simple  engineering  structures.  It  is  a  notice- 
able and  significant  fact  that  95  per  cent  of  this  entire  area  is  held 
in  private  ownership.  The  following  paragraphs  taken  from  this 
Circular  No.  76  express  the  desirability  of  such  drainage  from  the 
monetary  point  of  view  in  very  forcible  terms : 

There  is  no  question  as  to  the  fertility  of  swamp  or  overflowed  land,  and  when  it  is 
protected  by  embankments  to  keep  out  the  overflow  and  is  relieved  of  the  excess  of 
water  by  proper  drainage  its  productiveness  is  unexcelled.  In  nearly  every  one  of 
the  States  large  areas  of  similar  lands  have  been  reclaimed  by  draining  and  embanking 
and  have  proven  to  be  the  most  productive  farm  lands  in  the  districts  in  which  they 
are  located.  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  and  southern  Louisiana  have  taken  the  lead  in 
work  of  this  kind,  and  in  no  other  part  of  the  country  do  we  find  more  profitable  or 
higher-priced  farms  than  in  those  States.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast  sufficient  work 
has  been  done  to  indicate  that  the  vast  extent  of  salt  marsh  reaching  from  Maine  to 
Florida  can  by  proper  methods  be  won  to  agriculture,  and  when  reclaimed  the  soils 
are  especially  adapted  to  market  gardening. 

To  ascertain  why  these  lands  have  been  allowed  to  remain  so  long  in  their  present 
state  we  must  look  to  some  cause  other  than  their  lack  of  fertility,  as  this  has  been 
fully  established  by  chemical  analyses  of  the  soil  and  by  hundreds  of  productive 
farms  that  have  been  made  from  such  lands. 

In  the  early  settlement  of  our  country  the  farms  were  located  on  what  were  con- 
sidered the  most  desirable  tracts,  determined  by  accessibility,  natural  water  supply, 
and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  As  civilization  extended  westward  the  home  seeker 
selected  the  rolling  prairie  that  needed  little  or  no  drainage,  so  that  the  swamps  and 
overflowed  lands  were  passed  by,  and  only  recently  has  an  imperative  demand  arisen 
for  their  reclamation.  The  desirable  farming  land  is  practically  all  occupied  or  held 
for  speculation,  and  to  meet  the  needs  of  our  steadily  increasing  population  it  is  neces- 


THE   VALUE    OF    RECLAIMED   LANDS.  57 

sary  for  this  swamp  land  to  be  drained  and  put  to  proper  use.     Its  nearness  to  market 
and  its  great  fertility  make  it  very  desirable  for  small  farms. 

Can  these  lands  be  drained,  what  will  it  cost,  and  how  can  the  work  best  be  done 
are  questions  of  vital  interest  to  the  American  people.  After  considering  what  has 
been  done  to  reclaim  the  marshes  of  Holland,  two-fifths  of  which  lie  below  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  the  difficulties  that  have  been  overcome  in  draining  the  fens  of  England, 
it  would  be  a  reflection  on  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  American  engineer  to  pro- 
claim the  drainage  of  our  swamp  lands  impossible.  On  the  contrary,  the  engineering 
problems  are  simple,  as  most  of  these  lands  are  several  feet  above  sea  level  and  have 
natural  creeks  or  bayous  that  need  only  to  be  improved  by  straightening,  widening, 
and  deepening  to  afford  outlets  for  complete  drainage.  In  case  of  some  of  the  river 
bottoms  and  the  salt  marsh  along  the  coast  it  is  necessary  to  build  levees  to  prevent  over- 
flow and  to  construct  internal  systems  of  drainage  with  sluice  gates  or  pumps  to  dis- 
charge the  water  from  within,  and  by  the  use  of  modern  machinery  this  work  is  neither 
difficult  nor  expensive.  Levees  can  be  built  and  ditches  excavated  with  suitable 
dredges  at  a  cost  ranging  from  7  to  16  cents  per  cubic  yard.  Large  works  in  swamps 
where  the  land  is  overflowed  are  readily  and  cheaply  constructed  in  this  manner. 

As  to  the  cost  of  draining  these  lands,  and  whether  or  not  it  will  pay,  we  have  but  to 
refer  to  the  numerous  works  of  this  kind  that  have  been  completed.  In  those  States 
where  large  areas  of  swamp  land  have  been  thoroughly  drained  by  open  ditches  and 
tile  drains  the  cost  ranges  from  $6  to  $20  per  acre,  while  in  places  where  tile  drainage 
was  not  required  the  average  cost  has  not  exceeded  $4  per  acre.  Judging  from  the 
prices  which  prevail  in  a  large  number  of  these  districts  where  work  of  this  kind  is 
being  carried  on,  it  is  safe  to  estimate  that  the  77,000,000  acres  of  swamp  can  be 
thoroughly  drained  and  made  fit  for  cultivation  at  an  average  cost  of  $15  per  acre. 
The  market  value  of  these  lands  in  their  present  shape  ranges  from  $2  to  $20  per  acre, 
depending  upon  the  location  and  prospect  of  immediate  drainage,  with  an  average 
of  probably  $8  per  acre.  Similar  lands  in  different  sections  of  the  country  that  have 
been  drained  sell  readily  at  $60  to  $100  per  acre  at  the  completion  of  the  work,  and  in 
many  instances,  when  situated  near  large  cities,  they  have  sold  as  high  as  $400  per 
acre.  To  determine  whether  or  not  it  will  pay  to  drain  these  lands  we  have  but  to 
consider  the  following  figures: 
Cash  value  of  77,000,000  acres  after  thorough  drainage,  at  $60  per  acre.  $4,  620, 000, 000 

Present  value  of  this  land ,  at  $8  per  acre $616,  000,  000 

Cost  of  drainage,  at  $15  per  acre 1, 155,  000,  000 

Value  of  land  and  cost  of  draining 1,  771, 000, 000 

Net  increase  in  value 2,  849, 000,  000 

These  figures,  though  large,  are  not  fanciful,  but  are  based  on  results  obtained  in 
actual  practice  in  different  sections  of  the  country  where  work  of  this  kind  has  been 
done.  An  extended  investigation  shows  that  in  every  case  where  a  complete  system 
of  drainage  has  been  planned  and  carried  out  the  land  has  increased  in  value  many 
fold.  In  some  instances,  however,  much  time  and  money  have  been  wasted  because 
the  work  was  undertaken  without  any  well-defined  plan  or  it  was  not  sufficient  to 
afford  adequate  and  complete  drainage. 

The  reclamation  of  swamp  and  overflowed  lands  is  no  longer  an  experiment;  it  has 
become  a  highly  profitable  business  when  based  on  correct  principles.  The  methods 
of  drainage  practiced  in  different  parts  of  this  country  and  in  some  of  the  foreign 
countries  are  being  carefully  considered,  and  many  experiments  are  being  made  to 
determine  the  best  and  most  economical  methods  of  draining  land,  and  the  information 
thus  collected  is  being  classified  and  the  results  compared  and  general  rules  deduced 
which,  if  followed,  will  in  all  cases  bring  highly  beneficial  results.  The  comparative 
cost  of  the  different  methods  of  doing  the  work  and  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  pro- 
viding funds  are  also  being  duly  considered. 


58         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Were  this  77,000,000  acres  of  swamp  and  overflowed  land  drained  and  made  healthful 
and  fit  for  agriculture  and  divided  into  farms  of  40  acres  each,  it  would  provide  homes 
for  1,925,000  families.  Swamp  lands,  when  drained,  are  extremely  fertile,  requiring 
but  little  commercial  fertilizer,  and  yield  abundant  crops.  They  are  adapted  to  a 
wide  range  of  products  and  in  most  instances  are  convenient  to  good  markets.  While 
an  income  of  $15  to  $20  per  acre  in  the  grain-producing  States  of  the  Middle  West  is 
considered  profitable,  much  of  the  swamp  land  in  the  East  and  South  would,  if 
cultivated  in  cabbage,  onions,  celery,  tomatoes,  and  other  vegetables,  yield  a  net 
income  of  more  than  $100  per  acre. 

In  addition  to  the  immediate  benefits  that  accrue  from  the  increased  productiveness 
of  these  lands,  a  greater  and  more  lasting  benefit  would  follow-  their  reclamation.  The 
taxable  value  of  the  Commonwealth  would  be  permanently  increased,  and  health- 
fulness  of  the  community  would  be  improved,  mosquitoes  and  malaria  would  be 
banished,  and  the  construction  of  good  roads  made  possible.  Factories,  churches, 
and  schools  would  open  up,  and  instead  of  active  young  farmers  from  the  Mississippi 
Valley  emigrating  to  Canada  to  seek  cheap  lands  they  could  find  better  homes  within 
our  own  borders. 

Holland,  two-fifths  of  which  lies  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  been  reclaimed  by 
diking  and  draining,  and  now  supports  a  population  of  450  per  square  mile.  Her  soil 
is  no  better  than  the  marshes  of  this  country,  and  her  climate  not  so  good  as  that  of 
the  Southern  States,  yet  we  have  within  our  border  an  undeveloped  empire  ten  times 
her  area. 

There  is  no  good  reason  why  this  condition  should  longer  continue,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  American  people  will  soon  take  steps  to  abate  this  nuisance  and  make 
these  lands  contribute  to  the  support  and  upbuilding  of  the  nation. 

In  an  important  article  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Weeks,  in  the  Scientific 
American  Supplement  for  January  5,  190 1,  on  the  subject  of  drainage 
work,  the  following  interesting  statements  are  made: 

Cases  exist,  however,  of  persons  being  unwilling  to  be  convinced,  and  continuing 
their  opposition  even  after  a  successful  reclamation,  as  are  seen  in  the  official  records 
of  Massachusetts,  while  examinations  by  the  State  have  shown  a  great  improvement 
in  the  sanitary  and  agricultural  conditions.  In  the  instance  of  Green  Harbor,  in  that 
State,  it  is  shown  that  the  death  rate  of  the  reclaimed  district  averages  lower  than  the 
general  death  rate  of  the  State;  that  there  is  a  steady  increase  in  summer  visitors,  and 
that  many  houses  are  being  built.  The  testimony  of  persons  of  wide  knowledge  and 
ample  experience  in  the  science  and  art  of  agriculture  is  adduced,  showing  the  good 
results  in  that  field,  and  yet  it  fails  to  silence  opposers.  Besides  mentioning  the 
remarkably  heavy  crops  of  hay,  much  preferred  by  his  horses  to  the  best  from  the 
uplands,  also  the  excellent  crops  of  strawberries  and  vegetables  raised  in  these  lands, 
one  such  qualified  observer  gives  his  experience  as  to  asparagus  in  such  convincing 
words  that  they  are  quoted  in  full:  "  While  visiting  the  Marshfield  Meadows  on  April 
19,  1897,  I  found  asparagus  already  up,  very  nearly  high  enough  to  cut.  I  was  sur- 
prised at  this,  for  my  own  asparagus  had  but  just  appeared  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  although  growing  on  land  so  warm  that  I  am  usually  first  to  ship  native  aspara- 
gus to  Boston  market.  I  was  also  surprised  at  the  size  of  the  stalks,  they  being  much 
larger  than  the  first  set  of  stalks  that  appear  on  my  land.  When  I  consider  the  fact 
that  the  land  on  which  this  asparagus  was  growing  has  produced  large  crops  every 
year  for  twenty  years  without  fertilizers  of  any  kind,  and  still  produces  better  crops 
than  my  land,  which  has  had  $600  worth  of  fertilizers  to  the  acre  applied  to  it  during 
the  last  twenty  years,  it  convinces  me  that  this  land,  for  garden  purposes,  surpasses 
any  which  I  have  ever  examined     *    *    *." 

We  realize,  in  a  measure,  the  great  value  of  the  material  which  nature  has  for  ages 
been  storing  up  for  man's  future  use,  if  he  be  wise  enough  to  avail  himself  of  it. 


THE   VALUE   OF   RECLAIMED   LANDS.  59 

The  drainage  work  done  by  other  countries  has  given  many  prac- 
tical examples  of  beneficial  results  from  the  mosquito  standpoint,  and 
from  other  points  of  view  as  well.  The  details  have  very  recently 
become  available,  through  the  kindness  of  the  United  States  consul 
at  Milan,  Italy,  of  very  extensive  drainage  operations  carried  on 
near  Milan,  which  involved  the  reclamation  of  nearly  80,000  acres 
of  land.  These  details  may  be  found  in  the  Scientific  American 
Supplement  No.  1637,  May  18,  1907,  pages  26233  to.  26235.  The 
work  cost  $3,200,000,  and  the  annual  cost  of  operation  is  estimated 
at  $16,000.     The  beneficial  results  are  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  In  both  Mantua  and  Reggio  this  tract,  comprising  77,867  acres,  cultivable  only 
for  a  sparse  crop  of  poor  hay  and,  on  account  of  the  vapors  arising  from  its  stagnant 
swamps,  dangerous  for  pasturage  during  practically  all  the  year,  has  been  made 
cultivable,  in  one  year,  for  wheat,  grapes,  fruits,  and  hay,  and  rendered  go'od  for  cutting 
into  farms  on  which  people  can  erect  homes  in  safety. 

2.  The  market  values,  not  only  on  the  78,000-acre  tract  but  on  all  contiguous  terri- 
tory, even  to  the  outer  bounds  of  the  affected  provinces,  have  leaped  to  figures  equal 
to  two  or  three  times  those  prevailing  before  the  opening  of  the  Bonifica,  i.e.,  from 
$120  to  $250  or  $300  per  acre. 

3.  Farm  labor,  which  formerly  expressly  avoided  these  provinces,  and  made  diffi- 
cult the  harvesting  of  the  extensive  crops,  has  been  attracted  there  by  the  changed 
conditions;  while  on  account  of  the  demand  created  by  the  active  development  of  the 
drained  tract,  wages  have  not  been  knocked  down  by  the  plentitude  of  supply. 

4.  Live-stock  maladies  are  under  better  control. 

5.  The  public  health  has  been  afforded  a  sure  and  scientific  protection. 

SALT-MARSH    LANDS    IN    NEW   JERSEY. 

So  much  work  has  already  been  done  in  New  Jersey  that,  as 
repeatedly  pointed  out  in  this  work,  the  value  of  the  operations 
already  carried  on  in  that  State  is  very  great,  if  only  as  an  indication 
of  what  can  be  and  should  be  done  elsewhere.  The  whole  question 
of  the  New  Jersey  salt  marsh  and  its  improvement  has  been  consid- 
ered by  Dr.  John  B.  Smith  in  Bulletin  No.  207  of  the  New  Jersey  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  In  this  work  he  gives  a  consideration 
of  the  location  of  the  salt-marsh  area,  the  kinds  of  salt  marsh,  the 
vegetation  on  the  marshes,  the  present  value  of  the  marshes,  their 
actual  value,  effect  of  drainage  on  crops,  the  needs  of  salt  grass  and 
black  grass,  and  a  general  consideration  as  to  how  the  marshes  may 
be  reclaimed  and  who  is  to  pay  the  expense. 

It  appears  that  the  present  value  of  the  marshes  is  very  small. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  either  not  taxed  at  all  or  at  such  a  low 
rate  as  to  add  little  to  the  income  of  the  taxing  body.  Some  of  the 
owners  have  never  paid  any  taxes,  and  in  some  of  the  townships 
there  is  no  record  of  ownerships  in  the  assessor's  hands  and  there- 
fore no  notices  can  be  served.  It  is  pointed  out,  as  an  evidence  of 
the  recognized  worthlessness  of  such  land,  that  none  who  work  on 
them  consider  in  the  least  the  results  of  interference  with  natural 


60         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

drainage;  railroads  build  embankments  across  them,  and  pay  no 
attention  to  the  water  courses  except  large  creeks.  The  result  is  that 
the  marsh  often  becomes  water-logged,  and  a  good  salt-hay  meadow 
is  turned  into  a  quagmire,  and  not  even  the  owner  protests.  Rail- 
roads cut  sods  from  the  meadows  without  inquiry  as  to  the  ownership 
of  the  land,  and  holes  of  all  sizes  are  scattered  over  the  meadow,  most 
of  them  unconnected  with  tidewater,  leaving  stagnant  pools  in  which 
mosquitoes  breed. 

He  points  out  that  all  salt  marsh,  of  what  he  names  the  third  type, 
which  is  that  area  above  mean  high  tide  and  more  or  less  completely 
covered  with  vegetation,  may  be  made  to  produce  an  income  of  from 
$10  to  $40  per  acre  annually,  and  that  there  are  many  hundreds  of 
acres  that  do  produce  such  incomes. 

In  considering  the  effect  of  drainage  upon  crops  he  gives  a  number 
of  interesting  instances,  three  of  which  are  quoted: 

The  Newark  meadow  has  an  area  of  about  3,500  acres,  and  hay  has  been  cut  on  parts 
of  it  for  many  years.  Before  the  90's  it  was  generally  cut  by  men  who  wished  to  use 
it  as  food  for  stock  or  as  bedding,  and  some  ditches  were  cut  by  those  who  noticed  that 
well-drained  land  produced  much  better  crops  than  such  as  were  either  too  dry  or 
water-logged.  After  the  90's  a  number  of  banana  houses  opened  in  Newark  and  created 
a  demand  for  salt  hay  to  use  in  layering  the  ripening  fruit.  This  demand  led  to  the 
cutting  of  more  territory  around  the  edges  of  the  marsh,  and  $5  a  ton  was  paid  for  the 
crop.  With  the  introduction  and  increase  of  the  glass  industry  the  demand  for  hay, 
to  be  used  as  packing,  increased  steadily,  and  yet  greater  areas  were  cut;  and  in  order 
to  get  at  these  areas  the  cutting  was  done  in  the  winter,  after  the  meadow  was  frozen 
solid,  for  at  no  other  time  could  the  product  be  carted  off.  And  this  was  the  condition 
of  affairs  in  1904,  when  the  mosquito  drainage  was  done  by  the  city,  but  under  the 
supervision  of  the  writer.  It  might  be  said  here  that  this  drainage  work  was  not 
looked  upon  with  any  favor  by  owners  and  haymakers,  the  latter  especially  protesting 
vigorously.  One  man  threatened  to  smash  the  ditching  machine,  and  yet  another 
promised  to  shoot  the  first  man  that  set  a  spade  into  his  property.  The  work  went  on, 
nevertheless,  and  altogether  nearly  400,000  feet  of  ditches  went  into  this  3,500  acres. 

The  results  are  as  follows:  On  the  Hamburg  section,  where  in  1903,  on  an  area 
nearly  one  mile  square,  about  100  tons  of  hay  were  taken  off  during  the  winter,  250 
tons  were  carted  off  in  1904,  only  one  year  later.  The  meadow  has  hardened  up  right 
along,  and  in  1907  nearly  the  entire  area  was  cut  by  machine,  and  a  crop  of  800  tons, 
valued  at  $7.50  per  ton,  is  harvested.  Yet  a  worse  place  was  the  area,  about  one  by 
three-fourths  of  a  mile,  known  as  the  Ebeling  tract,  little  more  than  a  sunken  meadow 
before  1904,  from  which  no  more  than  30  tons  of  usable  grass  were  obtained.  After 
the  ditching  the  meadow  began  to  rise  and  improve,  and  at  present  writing  is  at  least 
seven  inches  above  its  1903  level,  and  correspondingly  improved  in  texture.  The  crop 
has  increased  from  30  tons  to  600  tons,  not  quite  so  good  as  the  other,  but  worth  an 
average  of  $7  per  ton.  Other  areas  which  had  theretofore  produced  nothing  are  now 
being  cut.  The  total  cut  in  1903  was  between  1,000  and  1,200  tons,  the  1907  crop  will 
come  close  to  3,000.     And  that  is  not  the  limit  of  productiveness. 

Forty  years  ago  the  Elizabeth  marshes,  containing  about  2,200  acres,  were  quite 
generally  cut  over  and  good  crops  of  hay  were  obtained.  There  was  considerable 
ditching  done,  but  it  was  not  kept  up,  and  as  the  marsh  was  crossed  and  cut  up  by  the 
railroads  without  regard  to  the  drainage  system,  matters  became  gradually  worse;  the 
meadow  rotted,  the  black  and  salt  grass  was  replaced  by  sedges  and  other  useless  stuff, 
and  less  and  less  was  cut  each  year  until,  for  a  decade  past,  little  or  nothing  has  been 


THE   VALUE    OF   RECLAIMED   LANDS.  61 

cut  from  the  area  west  of  the  Central  Railroad .  Where  as  much  as  5,000  tons  had  once 
been  harvested,  less  than  a  thousand  tons  were  harvested  in  1903.  In  1906  ditches 
were  cut  in  the  southeastern  section  of  the  meadow  in  the  course  of  the  mosquito 
work,  and  an  area  on  which  hip  boots  were  needed  in  that  year  can  now  be  safely 
traveled  dry  shod.  Where  we  found  sedge  and  useless  grasses  over  two-thirds  of  the 
area  in  1905,  on  that  same  proportion  we  now  have  good  salt  and  black  grass.  In 
another  year,  if  the  ditches  are  not  interfered  with,  the  sedge  will  be  practically  out. 
The  balance  of  the  area  was  ditched  early  in  1907,  all  the  work  being  completed  early 
in  July.  Shallow  depressions  that  have  been  water  covered  and  mosquito  breeders 
for  twenty  years  are  now  dry  and  covered  with  the  salt-marsh  flea-bane.  The  grass 
which  was  ten  to  twelve  inches  high  last  year  is  now  twenty  to  twenty-eight  inches 
high  and  much  more  dense.  For  the  first  time  in  nearly  twenty  years  hay  is  being 
again  cut  in  areas  west  of  the  railroad  and  in  the  area  between  Great  Island,  Elizabeth- 
port  and  the  Central  Railroad. 

In  draining  the  Shrewsbury  River  marshes  in  1904,  the  same  sort  of  opposition  from 
hay  producers  was  encountered  that  we  met  on  the  Newark  marshes,  and  it  was  objected 
that  the  ditches  cut  up  the  land  and  made  work  harder.  Nevertheless,  the  work  was 
done  and  the  result  is  a  crop  just  double — mostly  from  longer,  thicker  grass.  Before 
1904,  two  tons  per  acre  was  considered  a  good  crop;  now,  good  and  bad  together,  it 
averages  four  tons,  and  local  conditions  furnish  a  market  that  pays  $10  per  ton. 

In  his  annual  report  for  the  year  1908,  Doctor  Smith  states  that  his 
investigations  showed  that  a  very  small  part  of  the  salt-marsh  area 
produces  as  great  a  crop  as  it  should,  and  that  what  is  produced 
does  not  bring  as  good  a  price  as  it  should.  The  market  for  salt  hay 
is  slight,  due  in  part  to  the  character  of  the  crop  and  partly  to  the  uses 
to  which  it  is  put.  Since  the  crop  is  not  certain  it  can  not  be  relied 
upon,  and  the  price  varies  with  the  size  of  the  harvest.  Salt  hay  is 
used  largely  for  packing,  and  the  amount  demanded  depends  upon 
business  conditions.  In  1907  there  was  a  very  large  crop  of  hay,  but 
there  was  a  business  depression  at  the  same  time  which  brought  about 
so  low  a  price  as  to  scarcely  repay  harvesting.  He  shows  that  salt 
hay  is  altogether  too  valuable  to  be  used  for  packing  material  alone, 
and  that  if  an  annual  crop  could  be  expected  it  could  be  used  to  sup- 
plement upland  hay  in  feeding  horses  and  cattle.  The  drainage 
work  done  by  Doctor  Smith  under  the  state  mosquito  law  will  put 
the  meadows  into  such  shape  that  the  amount  of  hay  produced  will 
be  increased  without  increase  of  cost  except  in  harvesting,  and  will 
enable  the  production  of  dependable  crops.  He  states  that  on  July 
21,  1908,  he  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing,  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  an 
area  of  about  1,500  acres  of  salt  marsh  drained  and  partly  diked  and 
reclaimed.  The  largest  part  of  the  acreage  was  devoted  to  raising 
salt  hay  of  the  best  quality,  for  which  good  prices  were  received.  On 
the  diked  marsh  100  acres  had  been  kept  free  from  salt  water  since 
1904.  On  this  territory  strawberries,  asparagus,  onions,  and  celery 
were  being  raised,  and,  while  the  asparagus  was  not  of  the  best  quality 
and  the  strawberry  plants  were  in  no  way  unusual,  the  onions  and 
celery  were  of  the  best — in  fact  the  celery  was  so  good  that  most  of 


62         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

the  market  gardeners  in  that  vicinity  preferred  to  get  their  supplies 
from  this  source. 

Doctor  Smith  points  out  that  there  are  many  hundreds  of  acres 
along  the  shores  of  Barnegat  Bay,  and  especially  along  its  upper  por- 
tion, where  a  very  small  amount  of  diking  will  serve  to  keep  out  salt 
water  and  fit  the  land  for  certain  truck  crops.  He  also  shows  that 
along  a  large  portion  of  the  Barnegat  Bay  line  cranberry  plants  grow 
annually  to  the  very  edge  of  the  salt-marsh  line,  but  that  these  could 
not  be  improved  because  there  was  no  way  out  across  the  marsh  for 
surface  water.  With  the  ditching  going  on,  this  land  will  become 
available  in  large  part  at  least  and  will  allow  the  owners  to  derive  a 
revenue  from  land  which  is  at  present  practically  nonproductive. 
Of  course  taxes  will  then  be  raised  and  the  income  of  the  townships 
in  which  this  land  lies  will  be  increased. 

THE    PRACTICAL   USE    OF   NATURAL    ENEMIES    OF    MOSQUITOES. 
SALAMANDERS,  DRAGONFLIES,  PREDACEOUS  MOSQUITOES,  AND  FISH. 

Almost  no  practical  use  has  been  made  artificially  of  the  natural 
enemies  of  mosquitoes  except  with  fish.  It  is  true  that  about  1898 
Mr.  Albert  Koebele  imported  from  California  into  Hawaii  a  large  num- 
ber of  western  salamanders  (Diemyctylus  tortosus  Esch.),  which  were 
liberated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Makiki  stream  in  the  hope  of  redu- 
cing the  large  number  of  mosquitoes  breeding  in  small  pools  and  in  the 
taro  fields.  He  kept  two  of  these  salamanders  for  several  weeks  in 
an  open  tank  and  they  devoured  all  mosquito  larvae  that  occurred 
there;  and  while  hundreds  of  the  newly  hatched  mosquito  larvae 
could  always  be  observed,  none  of  them  ever  reached  full  growth. 
Whether  these  salamanders  have  increased  in  Hawaii  and  at  present 
form  an  important  element  in  the  mosquito  environment  is  not 
recorded. 

Among  the  predatory  insects  it  has  been  frequently  suggestea  that 
dragonflies  are  such  important  mosquito  enemies  that  efforts  should 
be  made  to  devise  some  artificial  means  of  encouraging  their  increase, 
and  in  fact  the  late  Dr.  R.  H.  Lamborn,  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia, 
offered  a  series  of  prizes  for  the  three  best  essays  regarding  the  methods 
of  destroying  mosquitoes  and  house  flies,  especially  designating  the 
dragonfly  for  careful  investigation.  The  prizes  were  awarded  to  Mrs. 
Carrie  B.  Aaron,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Mr.  A.  C.  Weeks  and  Mr.  Wm. 
Beutenmueller,  both  of  New  York,  but  none  of  the.  essayists  was  able 
to  solve  the  problem  of  the  practical  breeding  on  a  large  scale  of 
dragonflies  for  mosquito  extermination. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  breed  mosquitoes  of  the  genera  Psorophora 
and  Megarhinus,  the  larvae  of  which  are  extremely  active  and  feed 
so  voraciously  upon  the  larvae  of  other  mosquitoes,  but  Psorophora 


PRACTICAL  USE   OF   NATURAL  ENEMIES   OF   MOSQUITOES.  63 

itself  in  the  adult  condition  is  a  voracious  biter  and  is  a  potential 
carrier  of  disease,  so  that  to  breed  it  for  predaceous  purposes  is 
hardly  to  be  considered;  in  other  words,  the  remedy  might  prove 
worse  than  the  disease.  However,  Dr.  Oswaldo  Goncalves  Cruz, 
director-general  of  the  board  of  health  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  told  the 
writer  in  November,  1907,  while  on  a  visit  to  Washington,  that 
Lutzia  bigotii  is  used  in  Rio  practically  to  destroy  the  larvae  of  the 
yellow-fever  mosquito.  The  Lutzia  larvae  are  exclusively  carnivo- 
rous, and  this  species  is  introduced  in  regions  where  the  mosquito 
abounds,  and  its  larvae  destroy  the  other  larvae  as  efficaciously  as  do 
fish. 

For  a  long  time  fish  have  been  used  practically  on  a  small  scale. 
For  example,  it  was  stated  a  number  of  years  ago  in  Insect  Life  that 
mosquitoes  were  at  one  time  very  abundant  on  the  Riviera  in  south 
Europe,  and  that  one  of  the  English  residents  found  that  they  bred 
abundantly  in  water  tanks,  and  introduced  carp  into  the  tanks  for 
the  purpose  of  destroying  the  larvae.  It  is  said  that  this  was  done 
with  success,  but  it  is  rather  certain  that  the  fish  must  have  been 
some  other  form  than  carp.  It  is  probable  that  the  fish  in  question 
was  the  common  goldfish  (Carassius  auratus). 

In  the  southern  United  States  for  many  years  intelligent  persons 
here  and  there  have  introduced  fish  into  water  tanks  for  this  purpose. 
Mr.  E.  A.  Schwarz  found  in  1895  that  at  Beeville,  Tex.,  a  little  fish 
was  used.  The  fish  was  called  a  perch,  but  its  exact  specific  character 
is  not  known.  Prior  to  1900,  Mr.  F.  W.  Urich,  of  Trinidad,  wrote  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  that  there  is  a  little  cyprinoid,  common  in  that 
island,  which  answers  admirably  for  the  purpose.  In  a  letter  to  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  Mr.  J.  B.  Fort,  of  Athens,  Ga.,  writes  that 
about  1854  his  father,  Dr.  Tomlinson  Fort,  living  at  Milledgeville, 
Ga.,  found  that  mosquitoes  were  breeding  extensively  in  a  cistern 
owned  by  certain  livery-stable  keepers.  They  refused  to  use  oil  upon 
their  cistern,  and  Mr.  Fort  was  instructed  by  his  father  to  catch 
some  small  fish  from  a  creek  near  by  and  place  them  in  the  cistern. 
About  a  dozen  or  more  small  fish  were  so  placed,  and  in  a  day  or  so  all 
of  the  larvae  were  destroyed.  This  instance  is  mentioned  as  indica- 
ting the  early  use  of  fish  on  a  small  scale  in  cisterns. 

In  " Mosquitoes"  (1901)  the  writer  recommended  the  practical  use 
of  sticklebacks,  top-minnows  (Gambusia  affinis  and  Fundulus  notatus) , 
and  the  common  sunfish  or  pumpkinseed,  and  these  fish,  especially 
the  top-minnows  and  the  sunfish,  were  used  with  success  in  a  number 
of  instances  in  small  ponds.  An  instance  has  been  described  in  a 
letter  to  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  by  C.  T.  Anderson,  of  Anderson, 
Washington  County,  Fla.,  who  wrote  that  he  had  a  spring  on  his  place 
that  swarmed  with  mosquito  larvae  in  the  summertime.  He  got 
about  a  dozen  top-minnows  and  put  them  into  the  spring  without 


64         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

telling  the  rest  of  the  family.  In  a  day  or  two  a  member  of  the  family 
remarked  that  there  were  no  wrigglers  in  the  water.  Mr.  Anderson 
verified  the  observation,  and  after  many  months  was  able  to  state 
that  no  mosquito  larvae  had  been  seen  since. 

The  common  goldfish  proves  to  be  an  excellent  mosquito  feeder 
and  during  the  summer  of  1901  Mr.  Jacob  Kotinsky,  then  of  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  conducted  a  series  of  laboratory  experiments 
with  goldfish  in  an  aquarium.  He  found  that  they  were  voracious 
feeders  on  mosquito  eggs,  preferring  them  to  larvae.  He  further 
noticed  that  the  fish,  after  taking  several  larvae  into  the  mouth,  would 
eject  some  of  them.  Further,  he  found  that  in  a  large  jar  containing 
four  goldfish  and  many  hundreds  of  mosquito  larvae,  a  few  of  the 
larvae  succeeded  in  transforming  and  emerging  as  adult  mosquitoes. 
The  food  supply  was  evidently  in  excess  of  the  capacity  of  the  fish. 

At  an  earlier  date  than  this  Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw,  of  the  Biological 
Survey  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  was  staying 
at  Fruitville,  near  Oakland,  Cal.  The  house  and  neighboring  houses 
were  badly  infested  with  mosquitoes.  He  found  the  source  of  supply 
to  be  a  lily  pond  about  7  by  12  feet  in  size  and  fully  3  feet  deep,  which 
was  fairly  swarming  with  larvae.  He  got  a  half  dozen  goldfish  from 
San  Francisco  and  put  them  into  the  pond.  The  following  day  they 
were  so  badly  bloated  that  they  could  hardly  swim,  and  in  a  few 
days  there  was  not  a  single  larva  left.  The  fish  bred  in  the  pond  and 
from  the  time  of  their  introduction  there  was  a  very  marked  decrease 
in  the  number  of  mosquitoes  in  that  general  locality. 

Mr.  William  Lyman  Underwood,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  in  Science  for  December  27,  1901,  described  an  interest- 
ing experience  with  goldfish: 

About  six  years  ago,  at  my  home  in  Belmont,  near  Boston,  Mass.,  I  constructed  a 
small  artificial  pond  in  which  to  grow  water  lilies  and  other  aquatic  plants  and  also 
to  breed,  if  possible,  some  varieties  of  goldfish — though  the  latter  object  was  a  second- 
ary consideration.  The  advisability  of  making  this  pond  had  been  somewhat  ques- 
tioned on  account  of  its  close  proximity  to  my  house  and  the  fact  that  such  ponds  are 
likely  to  become  excellent  places  for  the  propagation  of  mosquitoes.  Nevertheless, 
the  plan  was  carried  out  and  the  pond  was  stocked  with  goldfish  taken  from  natural 
ponds  in  the  vicinity  where  they  had  been  living  and  breeding,  to  my  personal  knowl- 
edge, for  a  number  of  years. 

The  aquatic  garden  has  proved  a  success  and  the  goldfish  have  meantime  thriven 
and  multiplied.  Moreover,  no  mosquitoes  attributable  to  the  pond  have  appeared 
and  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  larvae  in  it,  although  I  have  searched  repeatedly 
and  diligently  for  them.  I  have  always  believed  that  the  absence  of  mosquito  larvae 
from  this  pond  was  due  to  the  presence  of  the  goldfish,  and  I  have  so  stated  in  a  paper, 
"On  the  Drainage,  Reclamation,  and  Sanitary  Improvement  of  Certain  Marsh  Lands 
in  the  Vicinity  of  Boston  "  in  the  Technology  Quarterly,  XIV,  69  (March,  1901),  as 
follows:  "In  the  water  (of  this  pond)  are  hundreds  of  goldfish  that  feed  upon  the 
larvae  of  mosquitoes  and  serve  to  keep  this  insect  pest  in  check."  *  *  *  I  took 
from  the  pond  a  small  goldfish  about  three  inches  long  and  placed  it  in  an  aquarium 
where  it  could,  if  it  would,  feed  upon  mosquito  larvae  and  still  be  under  careful  obser- 
vation.   The  result  was  as  I  had  anticipated.     On  the  first  day,  owing  perhaps  to  the 


PRACTICAL  USE   OF   NATURAL  ENEMIES   OF   MOSQUITOES.  65 

change  of  environment,  and  to  being  rather  easily  disturbed  in  its  new  quarters,  this 
goldfish  ate  eleven  larvae  only  in  three  hours;  but  the  next  day  twenty  were  devoured 
in  one  hour;  and  as  the  fish  became  more  at  home  the  "wrigglers"  disappeared  in 
short  order  whenever  they  were  dropped  into  the  water.  On  one  occasion  twenty 
were  eaten  in  one  minute,  and  forty-eight  within  five  minutes.  This  experiment  was 
frequently  repeated,  and  to  see  if  this  partiality  for  insect  food  was  a  characteristic  of 
those  goldfish  only  which  were  indigenous  to  this  locality  I  experimented  with  some 
said  to  have  been  reared  in  carp  ponds  near  Baltimore,  Maryland.  The  result  was 
the  same,  though  the  appetite  for  mosquitoes  was  even  more  marked  with  the  Balti- 
more fish  than  with  the  others.  This  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  they  had  been 
in  an  aquarium  for  a  long  time  before  I  secured  them,  and  had  been  deprived  of  this 
natural  food.  I  also  tried  the  experiment  of  feeding  commercially  prepared  "goldfish 
food"  and  mosquito  larvae  at  the  same  time,  and  found  that  in  such  a  case  the  goldfish 
invariably  preferred  the  larvae. 

It  is  not  as  generally  realized  as  it  should  be  that  goldfish  will  thrive  in  our  natural 
northern  waters.  In  my  experience  they  can  easily  be  bred  in  any  sheltered  pond 
where  the  water  is  warm  and  not  fed  by  too  many  cold  springs,  and  for  many  years 
they  have  been  breeding  naturally  in  many  small  ponds  in  the  vicinity  of  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. 

When  it  is  once  understood  that  these  fish  are  useful  and  ornamental,  as  well 
as  comparatively  hardy,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will  be  introduced  into  many 
small  bodies  of  water  where  mosquitoes  are  likely  to  breed,  and  thus  be  employed  as  a 
remedy  for  mosquitoes  sometimes  preferable  to  kerosene. 

The  year  1908  in  the  island  of  Cyprus  proved  to  be  the  most  mala- 
rious year  since  1885.  Careful  examination  of  conditions  was  made 
by  Dr.  George  A.  Williamson,  whose  report  will  be  found  in  the 
Journal  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Hygiene,  September  15,  1909, 
pages  271-272.  A  careful  search  was  made  in  the  marshes  to  the 
north  and  south  of  Larnaca,  but  no  breeding  places  of  Anopheles 
mosquitoes  were  found,  and  subsequent  search  showed  that  the 
malarial  mosquitoes  were  breeding  in  the  tanks  and  wells  of  private 
houses.  Here  kerosene  could  not  be  used,  and  the  use  of  goldfish 
was  advised.  Wherever  the  advice  was  followed  the  results  were 
perfect.  One  well,  described  by  Williamson,  was  about  20  feet  deep 
and  had  a  wide  mouth.  This  well  contained  Anopheles  larvae  in 
enormous  numbers,  and  of  five  persons  living  within  its  immediate 
neighborhood  four  became  infected  with  malaria.  This  well,  not 
being  in  use,  was  filled  in,  but  a  large  tank  which  was  near  it  was 
stocked  with  goldfish  and  all  Anopheles  larvae  were  destroyed  by 
them. 

An  excellent  discussion  of  the  relative  value  of  the  different  small 
fish  for  practical  handling  and  for  practical  use  against  mosquito 
larvae  has  been  published  by  Mr.  William  P.  Seal,  a  naturalist  of 
many  years'  experience  in  handling  fishes,  and  the  following  para- 
graphs taken  from  this  article"  may  be  considered  as  authoritative: 

As  a  destroyer  of  Anopheles  the  writer  has  for  several  years  advocated  the  use  of 
Gambusia  affinis,  a  small  viviparous  species  of  fish  to  be  found  on  the  South  Atlantic 
coast  from  Delaware  to  Florida.     A  still  smaller  species  of  another  genus,  Heterandria 

a  See  Scientific  American  Supplement,  vol.  65,  No.  1691,  pp.  351-352,  May  30, 1908. 
37713— Bull.  88—10—5 


66         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

formosa,  is  generally  to  be  found  with  Gambusia  and  is  of  the  same  general  character. 
The  females  are  about  one  inch  long  and  the  males  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  Both 
of  these  species  are  known  as  top  minnows,  from  their  habit  of  being  constantly  at  the 
surface  and  feeding  there.  The  conformation  of  mouth,  the  lower  jaw  projecting,  is 
evidence  of  their  top-feeding  habits.  Both  of  these  species  are  to  be  found  in  great 
numbers  in  the  South  in  the  shallow  margins  of  lakes,  ponds,  and  streams  in  the  tide- 
water regions  wherever  there  is  marginal  grass  or  aquatic  and  semiaquatic  vegetation. 
They  are  also  to  be  found  in  shallow  ditches  and  surface  drains  where  the  water  is  not 
foul,  even  where  it  is  but  the  fraction  of  an  inch  deep.  In  fact,  if  any  fishes  will  find 
their  way  to  the  remotest  possible  breeding  places  of  the  mosquito,  it  will  be  these. 
And  they  are  the  only  ones,  so  far  as  the  writer's  observation  goes,  that  can  be  consid- 
ered useful  as  destroyers  of  Anopheles  larvae. 

Gambusia  is  found  in  the  Ohio  Valley  as  far  north  as  southern  Illinois,  where  the 
winter  climate  must  be  at  least  as  severe  as  that  of  the  coast  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey. 

Dr.  Hugh  M.  Smith,  Deputy  U.  S.  Fish  Commissioner,  informed  the  writer  that  he 
had  examined  the  stomachs  of  several  hundreds  of  Gambusia  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay 
and  Albemarle  Sound  waters,  and  had  found  the  contents  to  be  principally  mosquito 
larvae.     *    *    * 

While,  as  has  been  stated,  all  fishes  have  some  measure  of  usefulness,  if  only  in  the 
way  of  deterrent  effect,  there  are  only  a  few  species  likely  to  be  found  in  waters  in 
which  mosquitoes  breed.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the  gold  fish  (introduced), 
several  species  of  Fundulus  (the  killifishes),  and  allied  genera,  three  or  four  species 
of  sunfish,  and  the  roach  or  shiner,  and  perhaps  one  or  two  other  small  cyprinoids. 
In  addition,  there  are  a  few  sluggish  and  solitary  species,  like  the  mud  minnow  (Umbra) 
and  the  pirate  perch  (Aphredoderus).  The  sticklebacks  have  been  mentioned  in 
this  connection,  but  the  Atlantic  coast  species,  and  probably  the  entire  family,  are 
undoubtedly  useless  for  the  purpose,  being  bottom  feeders,  living  in  the  shallow  tide 
pools  and  gutters,  hidden  among  plants  or  under  logs  and  sticks  at  the  bottom,  where 
they  find  an  abundance  of  other  food. 

In  the  salt  marshes  there  are  myriads  of  killifishes  running  in  and  out  and  over 
them  with  each  tide,  while  countless  numbers  of  other  and  smaller  genera,  such  as 
Cyprinodon  and  Lucania,  remain  here  at  all  stages  of  the  tide .  So  numerous  and  active 
are  all  of  these,  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  the  development  of  a  mosquito  where 
they  have  access. 

Of  the  killifishes  two  species,  Heteroditus  and  Diaphanous,  ascend  to  the  farthest 
reaches  of  tide  flow,  but  it  is  a  question  as  to  whether  they  would  prove  desirable 
for  the  purpose  of  stocking  land-locked  waters,  since  they  are  a  good  deal  like  the 
English  sparrow,  aggressive  toward  the  more  peaceable  and  desirable  kinds.  Even 
Cyprinodon,  which  would  at  first  thought  be  a  valuable  small  species  in  this  respect, 
is  viciously  aggressive  toward  goldfish  and  no  doubt  all  other  cyprinoids.  It  is  so 
characteristic  of  all  the  cyprinodonts,  that  they  can  only  be  kept  by  themselves  in 
aquaria.     They  are  the  wolves  or  jackals  of  the  smaller  species. 

The  writer  has  come  to  the  conclusion,  after  many  experiments  in  both  tanks  and 
ponds,  that  a  combination  of  the  goldfish,  roach,  and  top-minnow  would  probably 
prove  to  be  more  generally  effective  in  preventing  mosquito  breeding  than  any  other. 
The  goldfish  is  somewhat  lethargic  in  habit,  and  is  also  omnivorous,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  will  devour  any  mosquito  larvae  that  may  come  in  its  way  or  that  may 
attract  its  attention.  The  one  great  objection  is  that  they  grow  too  large,  and  the 
larger  will  eat  the  smaller  of  them.  That  is  one  of  the  drawbacks  to  goldfish  breeding. 
There  is  no  danger  of  overpopulation,  but  there  is  of  the  reverse.  Whether  or  not  it 
is  the  same  with  the  roach,  they  are  never  excessively  numerous,  although  no  doubt 
the  most  abundant  and  most  widely  distributed  of  the  Cyprinidae.  They  are  largely 
the  prey  of  predaceous  fishes,  and  never  approach  to  the  numbers  of  the  killifishes. 


PRACTICAL  USE   OF   NATURAL  ENEMIES   OF   MOSQUITOES.  67 

But  at  all  events  they  are  not  lethargic  like  the  goldfish,  being  on  the  contrary  one  of 
the  most  active  of  the  family,  and  equally  at  home  in  flowing  or  stagnant  water.  The 
roach  is  always  in  motion,  back  and  forth,  and  around  and  about,  on  a  never-ending 
patrol. 

The  top-minnows  would  supply  the  deficiencies  of  the  other  two  species,  and  in 
combination  they  should  very  thoroughly  populate  any  waters  not  already  stocked 
with  predaeeous  kinds,  and  exercise  an  effective  control.  One  of  the  great  difficulties 
in  the  case  is  that  there  are  dozens  of  kinds  of  insect  larvae  besides  those  of  the  mosquito, 
and  other  forms  of  life  as  well,  which  are  natural  and  possibly  preferred  food  of  the 
fishes,  thus  requiring  an  enormous  population  to  devour  them  all. 

The  larvae  of  gnats,  midges,  ephemera,  and  other  flies  and  insects  which  breed  in 
the  water,  as  well  as  the  many  small  crustaceans,  afford  a  menu  of  delicacies  that  would 
stagger  a  gourmand.  The  above  combination  of  mosquito  destroyers  might  be  sup- 
plemented by  two  small  species  of  sunfish,  Enneacanthus  obesus  and  E.  gloriosus,  which 
live  among  plants  and  would  be  a  check  on  larvae  other  than  the  mosquito.  The 
black-banded  sunfish,  Mcsogonistius  chaetodon,  would  also  be  desirable  for  this  purpose 
if  they  were  not  so  difficult  to  obtain  in  large  numbers.  One  or  both  species  of  Ennea- 
canthus can  be  found  wherever  there  are  aquatic  plants.  The  above-mentioned  five 
species  in  combination  seem  to  be  the  most  suitable  for  pond  protection  of  all  those 
which  are  known  to  thrive  in  still  water  and  which  in  any  degree  possess  the  desired 
qualities.  As  has  been  stated,  the  killifishes  would  probably  be  found  to  be  unde- 
sirable. In  their  natural  habitat,  the  tidal  streams  and  great  expanses  of  small  marsh, 
their  efficiency  is  unquestioned. 

There  are  many  places  at  the  seashore  where  there  are  swales  or  hollows  filled  with 
grasses  and  bushes,  which  in  periods  of  rainfall  become  breeding  places  for  the  mos- 
quito, especially  of  Anopheles.  If  these  places  are  stocke.d  with  fish,  the  result  is 
that  when  they  dry  up  the  fish  perish,  and  the  operation  must  be  repeated  after  each 
filling. 

The  writer  has  suggested  digging  holes  about  four  feet  square  down  through  the 
turf  into  the  sand  stratum  in  the  deepest  part.  Two  feet  is  usually  sufficient  to  secure 
a  constant  water  supply  where  the  fish  can  exist  until  the  hollow  is  again  rain-filled. 
Cyprinodon  and  Lucania  would  be  desirable  for  such  places,  and  they  are  to  be  found 
everywhere  in  the  ditches  and  tide  pools  on  the  flats. 

To  add  variety  to  the  treatment  of  the  subject,  it  might  not  be  amiss  to  suggest  that 
there  is  a  fish,  Anablaps,  inhabiting  the  fresh  waters  of  South  America,  which  seems 
to  be  specially  adapted  to  this  purpose.  To  quote:  "These  small  fishes  swim  at  the 
surface  of  the  water,  feeding  on  insects,  the  eye  being  divided  by  a  horizontal  parti- 
tion into  a  lower  portion  for  water  use  and  a  portion  for  seeing  in  the  air.  " 

Acting  largely  upon  Mr.  Seal's  advice,  Dr.  John  B.  Smith,  the  state 
entomologist  of  New  Jersey,  with  Mr.  Seal's  help,  in  November,  1905, 
brought  Gambusia  affinis  and  Heterandria  formosa  from  North  Caro- 
lina into  New  Jersey,  which  were  distributed  as  follows:  Eight 
thousand  in  spring  and  natural  drainage  rivulets  flowing  into  the  ice 
pond  at  Westville,  N.  J.,  600  in  a  landlocked  pond  near  Delanco,  600 
in  a  mill  pond  between  Merchantville  and  Evesboro,  600  in  landlocked 
waters  nearDelair,  and  400  in  ponds  of  the  Aquarium  Supply  Company, 
at  Delair.  In  Doctor  Smith's  report  for  the  year  1906  it  was  stated  that 
the  experiment  was  to  be  written  down  a  failure.  Whether  it  was  due 
to  the  destruction  of  the  introduced  fish  by  black  bass,  pike,  yellow 
perch,  and  sunfish,  or  whether  because  of  other  enemies,  or  because  of 
their  dislike  to  their  changed  conditions,  they  found  their  way  during 


68         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

the  spring  rains  to  rivulets  flowing  to  the  Delaware  River,  or  whether 
they  escaped  in  other  ways,  could  not  be  told.  In  his  report  for  1907, 
however,  Doctor  Smith  states  that  the  Gambusia  was  found  in  large 
numbers  in  Teals  Branch  of  Pond  Creek,  a  small  tributary  of  Delaware 
Bay  at  Higsbie's  Beach,  by  Mr.  Henry  W.  Fowler,  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  and  Messrs.  H.  Walker  Hand  and 
O.  H.  Brown.  These  gentlemen  found  it  also  very  abundant  in  New 
England  Creek,  another  tributary  of  Delaware  Bay  just  north. 
Doctor  Smith  states  that  Mr.  Seal  was  inclined  to  claim  that  this  find- 
ing was  the  result  of  his  work  in  1908,  but  that  Mr.  Fowler  doubted 
this  conclusion  since  the  points  where  found  were  90  miles  distant 
from  points  of  introduction. 

FISH    INTRODUCED    INTO    HAWAII   TO    ABATE    MOSQUITOES. 

In  the  early  part  of  1903  Mr.  D.  L.  Van  Dine,  then  entomologist  of 
the  Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment  station  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  brought  up  the  question  of  introducing  top-minnows 
into  Hawaii,  since  his  investigations  of  the  mosquito  problem  in  the 
islands  indicated  that  no  effective  natural  enemies  existed  there.  Dr. 
David  Starr  Jordan,  to  whom  the  problem  was  referred,  informed  Mr. 
Van  Dine  that  while  these  fish  had  never  been  transported  for  such  a 
great  distance,  they  were  extremely  hardy,  and  that  the  experiment 
would  be  well  worth  while.  The  cost  of  the  experiment,  however, 
was  prohibitive  at  the  time,  and  it  was  not  until  1904,  when  a  Citi- 
zens' Mosquito  Campaign  Committee  was  organized  in  Honolulu, 
that  the  requisite  funds  were  raised.  Mr.  Alvin  Seale,  an  assistant 
of  .the  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  United  States  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor,  was  chosen  to  do  the  work,  and  with  an  advance  of  $500 
started  in  July,  1905,  from  Stanford  University  to  the  southern 
United  States.  He  proceeded  to  Seabrook,  near  Galveston,  Tex., 
where  he  found  top-minnows  in  large  numbers.  They  were  swarming 
in  all  the  stagnant  waters  at  sea  level,  as  well  as  in  various  ditches, 
ponds,  and  standing  pools.  Mr.  Seale  found  that  mosquitoes  were 
very  plentiful  about  Seabrook,  but  after  careful  study  he  convinced  him- 
self that  they  did  not  breed  at  all  extensively  in  the  bodies  of  water 
containing  the  fish,  but  in  temporary  and  artificial  breeding  places,  such 
as  closed  pools,  tubs,  and  tin  cans,  not  accessible  to  fish.  Doctor 
Jordan  had  advised  the  collection  of  fish  of  the  following  genera: 
Mollinesia,  Adinia,  Gambusia,  and  Fundulus,  all  members  of  the 
family  Poeciliidge,  the  top-minnows.  Mr.  Seale  made  careful  exami- 
nations of  the  stomach  conditions  of  the  minnows  of  the  genera  recom- 
mended by  Doctor  Jordan.  These  stomach  contents  were  found  to 
consist  largely  of  larvae  of  various  insects,  including  those  of  mos- 
quitoes, of  the  egg-masses  of  mosquitoes,  of  minute  Crustacea,  and  of 
some  vegetation.     The  fish  of  the  genus  Gambusia  were  found  to  be 


PEACTICAL  USE   OF    NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF   MOSQUITOES.  69 

the  best  insect  feeders.  The  temperature  of  the  water  ranged  from 
74°  to  87°  F.  Careful  experiments  were  made  with  10-gallon  milk  cans, 
in  order  to  determine  the  conditions  under  winch  the  fish  could  be  most 
successfully  transported  to  Hawaii.  These  experiments  included 
observations  on  temperature  of  the  water  and  on  changing  the  water, 
and  from  these  experiments  was  ascertained  the  necessary  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  frequency  of  changing  and  the  fact  that  best 
results  could  be  obtained  by  transporting  them  in  water  of  the  normal 
temperature.  The  three  most  abundant  species,  Gambusia  ajjinis, 
Fundulus  grandis,  and  Mollinesia ,  were  then  collected  and  about 
75  were  placed  in  each  can,  a  20-gallon  tin  tank  full  of  water  being 
taken  along  as  a  supply  reservoir.  Air.  Seale  left  Seabrook  on  Septem- 
ber 4,  1905.  On  the  journey  the  fish  were  fed  sparingly  every  morn- 
ing at  8  o'clock  on  prepared  fish  food,  finely  ground  fiver,  or  hard- 
boiled  eggs.  At  half  past  nine  one-half  of  the  water  in  each  can  was 
drawn  off  from  the  bottom,  thus  cleaning  the  cans  and  removing  un- 
eaten food  and  excrement.  An  equal  amount  of  fresh  water  was 
added.  At  noon  the  cans  were  aerated  by  means  of  a  large  bicycle 
pump,  a  sponge  being  tied  over  the  end  of  the  hose  to  separate  the  air 
into  fine  currents.  At  four  in  the  afternoon  2  gallons  of  water  were 
drawn  off  from  the  bottom  and  2  gallons  of  fresh  water  put  in,  and  the 
aeration  was  repeated  just  before  bedtime.  Careful  tests  of  water  at 
each  place  of  changing  were  made  by  experimenting  with  two  fish. 
At  El  Paso,  Tex.,  there  was  so  much  alkali  in  the  new  water  that  the 
fish  were  killed;  at  Los  Angeles  and  at  San  Francisco  the  water  was 
good.  Twelve  fish  died  between  Galveston  and  San  Francisco,  and 
15  between  San  Francisco  and  Honolulu.  Honolulu  was  reached 
on  September  15,  1905,  with  a  loss  of  27  out  of  approximately  450 
fish.  On  arrival  the  fish  were  placed  in  the  breeding  ponds  prepared 
for  them  at  Moanalua,  near  Honolulu,  where  four  ponds  had  been 
made  ready.  The  fish  thrived  in  all  of  the  ponds  almost  equally  well. 
They  were  protected  by  screens  from  predatory  fish  and  from  being 
carried  out  to  sea  by  a  freshet.  In  an  official  bulletin  issued  July  25, 
1907,  Mr.  Van  Dine  reported  that  the  fish  had  multiplied  rapidly  and 
from  the  few  hundred  introduced  several  hundred  thousand  had  been 
bred  and  distributed.  They  had  proved  very  effective  against  mos- 
quito larvae  and  also  against  mosquito  egg-masses.  Later  advices 
show  that  the  good  work  is  continuing,  and  the  experiment  seems  to 
have  been  a  great  success. 

FISH    IX    THE    WEST    INDIES. 

Girardinus  pceciloides,  a  small  top-minnow,  occurs  very  abundantly 
in  Barbados,  where  the  popular  name  "millions"  has  been  applied 
to  them.  This  fish  is  very  small  in  size,  the  grown  female  measuring 
about  1J  inches  in  length,  while  the  male  is  much  smaller.     The 


70         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST    MOSQUITOES. 

female  is  dull  in  color,  without  conspicuous  markings,  while  the  male 
is  marked  with  irregular  red  splotches  on  the  sides  and  has  a  circular 
dark  spot  on  each  side.  The  fish  is  a  rapid  breeder  and  thrives  and 
multiplies  in  captivity  in  water-tanks,  reservoirs,  and  fountains,  and 
garden-tubs  in  which  aquatic  plants  are  kept.  They  are  greatly 
used  in  this  way  both  in  the  towns  and  on  the  estates  to  reduce  the 
annoyance  of  mosquitoes.  Tn  1905  this  fish  was  introduced  by  the 
Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  British  West  Indies  from 
Barbados  into  St.  Kitts,  Xevis,  and  Antigua.  In  1906  it  was  intro- 
duced into  Jamaica  and  in  1 908  into  St.  Vincent  and  St.  Lucia,  and  into 
Guayaquil  in  Ecuador.  An  account  of  these  introductions  is  given  in 
a  pamphlet  entitled  '  'Millions  and  Mosquitoes,"  byH.  A.  Ballou,  issued 
in  190S  by  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  West  Indies 
(No.  55).  In  August,  1905,  a  number  of  fish  were  sent  to  Antigua  in  a 
kerosene  tin.  They  arrived  in  good  condition  and  were  kept  in  a  tank 
at  the  botanic  station  until  they  had  sufficiently  increased  to  be  dis- 
tributed. They  were  liberated  in  several  ponds  and  streams  and 
increased  so  rapidly  that  the  country  board  of  health  undertook  the 
work  of  stocking  all  the  ponds  and  streams  of  the  island.  Three 
years  after  the  first  introduction  all  of  the  more  or  less  permanent 
water  of  Antigua  had  been  stocked,  and  Mr.  Ballou  states  that  many 
planters  and  others  have  commented  on  the  apparent  abatement  of 
the  mosquito  nuisance  in  many  localities.  At  St.  Kitts  the  intro- 
duction was  equally  successful,  but  the  local  government  did  not  take 
up  the  distribution  of  the  fish  as  in  Antigua.  In  Jamaica  they  were 
established  with  good  results.  ''Millions"  may  be  fed  in  captivity 
on  mosquito  eggs  and  larvse,  on  raw  beef  or  hard-boiled  eggs,  upon 
small  insects  of  any  kind,  and  even  upon  corn  meal.  They  are 
readily  transported  short  distances  in  a  kerosene  tin  with  no  other 
preparation  than  a  wire  netting  arranged  near  the  top  to  prevent 
the  fish  from  being  thrown  out  if  the  water  is  splashed  about.  These 
fish  have  been  introduced  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

FISH    IN    GERMAN    EAST    AFRICA. 

Mr.  J.  Vosseler,  in  an  article  entitled  "Fische  als  Moskito-Vertil- 
ger,"a  gives  an  interesting  account  of  some  experiments  with 
mosquito-feeding  fishes  in  German  East  Africa.  He  discusses  the  ques- 
tion quite  as  authoritatively  as  does  Mr.  Seal,  already  quoted,  and 
brings  out  the  point  that  on  account  of  the  great  physical  and  chem- 
ical differences  in  the  water  inhabited  by  mosquito  larvae  the  selection 
of  suitable  species  of  fish  is  made  difficult  by  several  restrictions. 
He  states  that  the  shallow  shores  of  rivers  or  large  lakes  can  be  ex- 
cluded from  consideration,  since  the  young  of  most  species  of  fish 

a  Published  in  Der  Pflanzer.  Ratgeber  fur  Tropische  Landwirtschaft,  for  June  13, 
1908,  vol.  4,  No.  8,  pp.  118-127. 


PRACTICAL  USE  OF   NATURAL  ENEMIES   OF   MOSQUITOES.  71 

living  there  frequent  the  shores  in  shoals  and  prey  upon  the  various 
forms  of  animal  life,  mosquito  larva?  included.  Many  water  supplies, 
however,  contain  salt  and  other  chemicals,  and  are  polluted  from 
various  sources,  even  from  the  excrement  of  game  coming  to  drink; 
while  temporary  collections,  such  as  pools,  puddles,  and  irrigation 
ditches,  contain  turbulent,  muddy  water.  The  level  of  the  water  in 
these  different  conditions  is  very  variable,  and  the  temperature  of 
the  water  goes  through  great  variations  within  a  single  day,  often  in 
midday  the  heat  rising  above  the  limit  which  most  fishes  can  stand. 
A  fish  which  would  withstand  all  these  conditions  would  be  very 
exceptional.  While  we  are  considering  the  question  of  fish  intro- 
duction, the  adaptability  of  the  species  to  acclimatization,  its  power 
of  enduring  long  transportation,  and  its  ability  to  multiply  rapidly, 
even  under  adverse  conditions,  are  of  vital  importance  to  success. 
In  his  travels  through  the  land  of  Oram  (Algeria)  in  1892,  Mr.  Vosseler 
found  a  widely  distributed  species  occurring  in  thousands  not  only  in 
the  springs  of  salt  or  magnesia  water  as  well  as  in  the  irrigation 
ditches,  but  also  in  the  highly  polluted,  badly  smelling  pools  used 
to  water  camels,  in  which  300  to  400  camels  often  waded  in  one  day. 
He  found  the  same  species  afterwards  in  pure  fresh  water,  in  hot 
springs,  and  in  brackish  water.  He  also  found  that  it  inhabits  the 
subterranean  waters  of  the  desert  and  is  probably  brought  up  by 
boring  for  artesian  wells.  One  of  the  officers  of  the  garrison  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  salt  basin  without  outlet  pointed  out  to  Mr.  Vosseler 
that  this  little  fish  eats  mosquito  larva?,  which  explained  the  com- 
parative absence  of  mosquitoes  in  that  locality.  Mr.  Vosseler  at- 
tempted the  introduction  of  these  fish  into  Germany  and  succeeded 
very  well  in  spite  of  inadequate  preparation.  They  began  to  lay 
eggs  within  a  week  of  their  arrival,  and  have  become  accustomed  to 
proper  food.  They  always  prefer  mosquito  larva?  and  small  crusta- 
ceans. The  fish  in  question  is  Cyprinodon  calaritanus.  The  female 
is  8  centimeters  and  the  male  5  centimeters  long.  The  eggs  are 
attached  singly  to  water  plants  or  stones  at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  a 
day.  Mr.  Vosseler  states  that  the  excellent  qualifications  of  the 
species  are  shared  by  other  members  of  the  same  family.  In  German 
East  Africa  at  least  2  genera  and  5  species  are  known. 

A    BRAZILIAN    FISH. 

Excellently  practical  results  are  reached  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  the 
use  of  a  small  fish  known  as  the  "barrigudo"  (Girardinus  caudima- 
culatus)  which,  in  the  great  prophylactic  work  carried  on  in  that 
city  under  the  public-health  service,  is  placed  in  tanks  and  boxes 
where  it  is  impossible  to  use  petroleum,  and  devours  the  larva?  of 
mosquitoes  most  voraciously. 


72          PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 


In  considering  the  normal  relation  between  mosquitoes  and  fish, 
Mr.  James  K.  Thibault,  jr.,  of  Scott,  Ark.,  in  a  recent  communica- 
tion presents  some  interesting  views  and  gives  an  interesting  instance 
which  he  considers  typical  in  some  localities: 

Personally,  I  do  not  think  that  mosquitoes  ever  breed  in  the  presence  of  fish  if  the 
water  is  open,  allowing  the  fish  free  access  to  the  larvae,  yet  it  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation  that  under  certain  favorable  circumstances  some  species  do  breed  regu- 
larly in  streams  where  fish  are  abundant.  Yet  even  where  conditions  are  favorable 
only  a  very  few  species  seem  to  take  advantage  of  it.  So  far  as  my  own  observations 
go  the  only  mosquitoes  that  regularly  do  so  in  this  locality  are  Anopheles  quadrimacu- 
latus  and  Culex  abominator. 

Conditions  are  favorable  when  the  surface  of  the  water  becomes  carpeted  with 
aquatic  vegetation  which  restrains  the  fish  in  their  movements  yet  allows  ample  room 
and  protection  for  the  larvae  of  the  above-named  species.  There  is  a  certain  deep, 
slowly  running  bayou  here  that  is  the  main  breeding  place  for  quadrimaculatus  and 
abominator  at  present,  while  two  years  ago  not  a  larva  could  be  found  there  at  all.  The 
explanation  is  simple  and  may  be  given  as  a  typical  example  of  its  kind.  Two  years 
ago  launches  passed  through  this  bayou  daily  and  all  logs  and  drift  were  removed  as 
soon  as  found  so  that  the  water  had  free  passage  and  the  pond  weeds  found  no  foothold, 
except  very  near  the  banks  where  they  were  completely  destroyed  by  stock.  After 
the  launches  stopped  passing  through  this  bayou  logs  soon  accumulated  and  the  pond- 
weeds  immediately  took  possession,  so  that  throughout  the  present  season  quadrimacu- 
latus and  abominator  have  bred  continuously  and  abundantly  in  this  bayou. 

It  must  be  noted  in  passing  that  the  larvae,  pupae,  and  freshly  emerged  adults  bred 
in  such  a  location  are  invariably  bright  grassy  green  in  color,  which  gives  them  an 
additional  advantage  over  the  fishes.  This  is  not  the  case  with  larvae,  etc.,  found  in 
other  places. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  LARV2E. 

Of  course  the  abolition  of  accidental  breeding  places,  the  under- 
taking of  drainage  measures,  and  the  practical  use  of  natural  enemies 
such  as  fish,  result  in  the  destruction  of  larvae,  but  in  this  section  it  is 
proposed  to  treat  of  those  measures  which  involve  the  use  of  what 
have  come  during  recent  years  to  be  termed  "larvicides."  The  dic- 
tionary definition  of  the  word  insecticide  is  "one  who  or  that  which 
kills  insects,  as  insect  powder;"  therefore  a  definition  of  larvicide 
would  be  one  who  or  that  which  kills  larvae.  But  in  mosquito  work 
it  has  come  to  be  used  for  those  substances  which  are  applied  to  bodies 
of  water  in  which  mosquito  larvae  are  living,  and  which  result  in 
their  destruction  in  one  way  or  another.  These  substances,  for  the 
most  part,  are  either  poisons  or  more  frequently  oils  which,  forming  a 
surface  film,  destroy  the  larvae  when  they  come  to  the  surface  to 
breathe.  Ronald  Ross  long  ago  pointed  out  the  great  desideratum 
in  this  direction  in  the  following  words: 

I  have  long  wished  to  find  an  ideal  poison  for  mosquito  larvae.  It  should  be  some 
solid  substance  or  powder  which  is  cheap,  which  dissolves  very  slowly,  and  which 
when  in  weak  solution  destroys  larvae  without  being  capable  of  injuring  higher  ani- 


DESTRUCTION    OF   LAKV^.  73 

mals.  What  a  boon  it  would  be  if  we  could  keep  the  surface  of  a  whole  pond  free  from 
larvse  simply  by  scattering  a  cheap  powder  over  it,  once  in  six  months  or  so.  It  is 
very  possible  that  such  a  substance  exists,  but  unfortunately  we  have  not  yet  discov- 
ered it.a 

A  great  many  experiments  have  been  tried  with  poisonous  sub- 
stances in  the  search  for  the  desideratum  described  by  Doctor  Ross, 
but  although  it  is  now  seven  years  since  he  wrote  this  paragraph  we 
still  have  failed  to  discover  it.  As  early  as  1899  Celli  and  Casagrandi 
published  an  account  of  an  elaborate  series  of  laboratory  experiments 
on  the  destruction  of  mosquitoes  by  various  chemicals  in  a  paper  enti- 
tled uLa  Distruzione  delli  Zanzare,"  published  in  the  Annali  d'Igiene 
Sperimentale.  These  experiments  resulted  in  little  practical  good, 
and  practically  the  best  of  all  the  larvicides,  namely,  the  petroleum 
products,  were  discredited  by  the  authors  in  question. 

In  the  last  few  years  many  substances  have  been  experimented 
with,  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 
there  has  been  from  time  to  time  a  newspaper  notice,  or  a  series  of 
newspaper  notices,  of  some  new  substance  which  careful  experimen- 
tation has  shown  to  be  of  little  or  no  service.  In  this  way  the  use 
of  permanganate  of  potash  received  much  advertising  in  1900,  but 
as  the  writer  has  elsewhere  pointed  out,  as  a  result  of  careful  experi- 
mentation it  was  found  that  small  amounts  of  the  chemical  have  no 
effect  whatever  upon  mosquito  larvse,  which  were,  however,  killed 
by  using  amounts  so  large  that  instead  of  using  a  handful  to  a  10-acre 
swamp,  as  had  been  stated  in  the  newspapers,  at  least  a  wagon  load 
would  have  to  be  used  to  accomplish  any  result;  moreover,  twenty- 
four  hours  after  the  use  of  this  large  amount  and  after  the  larvae  were 
killed,  the  same  water  sustained  freshly-hatched  mosquito  larvae  per- 
fectly, so  that  even  were  a  person  to  go  to  the  prohibitive  expense 
of  killing  mosquito  larvae  in  the  swamp  with  permanganate  of  potash 
the  same  task  would  have  to  be  done  over  again  two  days  later. 

In  1904  a  publication  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  on  the  use  of  sulphate  of  copper 
against  algae  and  other  microscopic  plant-life,  put  certain  newspaper 
men  on  the  wrong  track,  and  a  number  of  articles  were  published 
making  the  erroneous  statement  that  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
recommended  sulphate  of  copper  as  a  perfect  remedy  against  mos- 
quito larvae.  So  widely  was  this  alleged  discovery  heralded  that 
careful  experiments  were  at  once  made  in  the  Bureau  of  Entomology, 
by  Dr.  John  B.  Smith,  of  New  Jersey,  by  Dr.  W.  E.  Britton,  of  Con- 
necticut, and  by  other  entomologists,  with  the  result  that  the  substance 
was  found  to  be  of  very  slight  value  as  a  larvicide,  and  of  really  no 
practical  value  whatever. 

Several  proprietary  mixtures  or  mosquito  compounds  have  been 
prepared  and  placed  on  sale  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  mosquito 

"Mosquito  Brigades,  London,  1902,  pp.  33-34. 


74         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

larvae.  A  number  of  these  have  been  brought  or  sent  to  the  writer 
for  experimentation,  but,  considering  the  cost,  none  of  them  has 
been  of  as  great  practical  value  as  petroleum.  In  his  report  on  the 
mosquitoes  occurring  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,a  Dr.  John  B.  Smith 
describes  a  number  of  experiments  with  substances  of  this  kind,  nota- 
bly with  certain  soluble  carbolic  acid  and  cresol  preparations,  with 
chloro-naphtholeum,  and  with  phinotas  oil,  and  in  his  report  for  1907 
he  gives  the  results  of  certain  experiments  with  a  substance  known 
as  "killarvae."  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  consider  any  of  these 
substances  in  this  connection  except  to  state  that  phinotas  oil  has 
met  with  considerable  use,  since  it  forms  a  milky  compound  with  water 
which  settles  through  a  pool  and  destroys  not  only  mosquito  larvae, 
but  all  other  animal  life  in  the  pool.  It  is  used  in  cesspools  and  recep- 
tacles of  that  kind,  and  is  also  found  to  be  of  service  in  the  anti- 
mosquito  work  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

In  another  section  we  have  spoken  of  the  use  of  certain  aquatic 
plants  as  forming  so  dense  a  covering  over  the  surface  of  the  water 
as  to  exclude  mosquito  larvae  from  access  to  air,  thus  bringing  about 
their  destruction.  Another  method  which  brings  about  the  same 
results,  although  in  a  different  way,  is  described  by  Consul  Wm.  H. 
Bishop,  of  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  the  Monthly  Consular  and  Trade 
Reports,  No.  331,  April,  1908,  in  which  he  quotes  from  an  account 
of  the  experiments  made  by  the  chief  of  the  sanitary  service  at 
Gaboon,  French  Africa,  with  cactus  as  a  substitute  for  petroleum 
in  the  extermination  of  mosquitoes  in  warm  climates.  Beyond  this 
account  by  Mr.  Bishop  we  have  no  further  information  of  this  remedy: 

The  thick,  pulpy  leaves  of  the  cactus,  cut  up  in  pieces,  are  thrown  into  water  and 
macerated  until  a  sticky  paste  is  formed.  This  paste  is  spread  upon  the  surface  of 
stagnant  water,  and  forms  an  isolating  layer  which  prevents  the  larvae  of  the  mosqui- 
toes from  coming  to  the  top  to  breathe  and  destroys  them  through  asphyxiation.  It  is 
true  that  petroleum  can  do  the  same  service,  but  in  warm  climates  petroleum  evapo- 
rates too  quickly  and  is  thus  of  little  avail.  The  mucilaginous  cactus  paste,  on  the 
contrary,  can  hold  its  place  indefinitely,  lasting  weeks,  months,  or  even  an  entire  year; 
and  the  period  of  the  development  of  the  larvae  being  but  about  a  fortnight  it  has  the 
most  thorough  effect. 

After  all  we  are  practically  reduced  to  the  use  of  oils  in  this  kind  of 
work.  Some  effort  has  been  made  to  find  if  there  are  any  other  oils 
that  could  be  used  to  better  advantage  than  petroleum.  A  suggestion 
was  once  made  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Matheson  that  corn  oil  might  be  used. 
This  is  a  substance  which  is  made  rather  extensively  in  certain  parts 
of  the  country  and  which,  considering  the  enormous  crops  of  corn 
grown  in  Western  States,  which  in  fact  are  so  great  that  in  past  years 
of  overproduction  corn  has  been  burned  as  fuel,  might  reasonably 

a  Report  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  upon  the  Mos- 
quitoes Occurring  within  the  State,  their  Habits,  Life  History,  etc.  Trenton,  N.  J., 
1904. 


DESTRUCTION   OF  LARV^.  75 

be  supposed  to  be  a  cheap  oil.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  and 
its  price*  is  prohibitive  as  compared  with  ordinary  grades  of  kerosene. 
Experiments  undertaken  in  1900  indicated  that  corn  oil  does  not 
spread  readily.  It  gathers  together  in  large  patches  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  mosquito  larvae  rising  to  the  surface  and  finding 
themselves  under  a  patch  of  oil  will  simply  wriggle  violently  until  they 
find  the  spaces  between  the  patches  where  they  breathe  comfortably 
and  live  for  several  days.  In  this  experiment  the  object  was  not 
only  to  secure  a  cheap  and  efficient  oil,  but  to  secure  a  persistent  oil 
which  will  not  evaporate  and  which  will  remain  for  at  least  several 
weeks  over  the  surface  of  the  water.  Its  nonspreading  qualities, 
however,  as  well  as  its  price  remove  it  from  practical  consideration. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  question  of  larvicides,  nothing  has  been 
found  more  satisfactory  as  regards  efficiency  and  price  than  common 
kerosene  of  low  grade,  or  better  still,  that  grade  known  as  fuel  oil. 
This  conclusion  has  not  only  been  arrived  at  in  the  United  States, 
but  elsewhere,  although  petroleum  has  been  more  extensively  used 
in  the  United  States  than  elsewhere,  and  it  is  better  understood  in 
this  country.  In  choosing  the  grade  of  the  oil,  two  factors  are  to  be 
considered.  First,  it  should  spread  rapidly;  second,  it  should  not 
evaporate  too  rapidly.  The  heavier  grades  of  oil  will  not  spread 
readily  over  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  will  cling  together  in  spots 
and  the  coating  will  be  unnecessarily  thick,  as  in  the  case  of  the  corn 
oil  just  mentioned.  The  rapidity  of  spread  of  film  is  also  important. 
Ronald  Ross,  in  his  "Mosquito  Brigades,"  pages  34  to  35,  makes  the 
following  statement: 

Mr.  Hankins  of  Agra  informs  me  that  the  addition  of  amyl  alcohol  greatly  expedites 
the  formation  of  the  film;  and  it  is  very  necessary  to  obtain  a  film  which  makes  its 
way  between  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  water  weeds. 

Early  in  the  course  of  antimosquito  work  in  the  United  States 
careful  experiments  were  made  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Kerr,  in  the  work  of 
the  Richmond  County  Club,  on  Staten  Island,  to  which  we  have 
referred  before.  He  tried  several  grades  of  oil  and  found  a  low  grade 
of  oil  known  as  "fuel  oil"  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  work.  Of  the 
oils  which  he  tried,  some  contained  too  much  residuum  of  a  thick 
nature,  which  appeared  as  a  precipitate  and  could  scarcely  be 
pumped;  some  were  too  thick  in  July  weather  and  could  not  be 
pumped  at  all,  while  some  were  limpid,  easily  handled,  made  a  good 
uniform  coating  on  the  ponds,  and  were  very  effective.  So  long  as 
oil  flows  readily  and  is  cheap  enough  the  end  is  gained,  provided  it 
is  not  too  light,  and  does  not  evaporate  too  rapidly.  The  grade 
known  as  light  fuel  oil  was  recommended  by  the  writer  to  the  United 
States  army  workers  in  Cuba  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish  war  and  was 
found  to  be  effective.  The  price  of  oil  of  this  kind  has  varied  from 
$2.25  per  barrel  to  $3  per  barrel,  f .  o.  b.  Philadelphia. 


76         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

In  his  early  Catskill  Mountains  experiments  the  writer  ascertained 
that  about  an  ounce  of  kerosene  to  15  square  feet  of  surface  space 
is  about  the  right  proportion,  and  that  such  a  film  would  remain  per- 
sistent for  ten  days,  or  slightly  longer.  He  noticed  further  that  even 
after  the  iridescent  scum  had  apparently  disappeared  there  was  still 
an  odor  of  kerosene  about  the  water  and  that  adult  mosquitoes 
avoided  it. 

In  the  work  done  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Quayle,  near  San  Francisco0  more 
or  less  oiling  was  done  upon  ponds  that  could  not  be  drained,  and 
upon  standing  pools  remaining  in  creek  beds  during  the  summer; 
and  some  was  also  done  on  marsh  lands.  The  oil  used  was  a  combi- 
nation of  heavy  oil  of  18°  gravity,  and  light  oil  of  34°  gravity  in  the 
proportion  of  4  to  1,  respectively.  This  mixture  made  an  oil  that 
was  just  thin  enough  to  spray  well  from  an  ordinary  spray  nozzle, 
and  yet  was  thick  enough  to  withstand  very  rapid  evaporation. 
It  was  applied  by  means  of  a  barrel  pump  where  this  could  be  used, 
but  in  the  creeks  and  other  situations,  which  could  not  be  reached 
by  horse  and  wagon,  the  ordinary  knapsack  pump  was  used.  The 
price  of  the  heavy  oil  at  Burlingame,  Cal.,  was  2  cents  a  gallon,  and 
of  the  lighter  oil  2J  cents  a  gallon.  The  former  was  obtained  from 
the  Bakersfield  district,  while  the  latter  was  a  product  of  the  Coalinga 
fields.  Mr.  Quayle  found  that  the  duration  of  efficiency  depended 
somewhat  on  the  nature  of  the  pool  and  its  exposure  to  the  winds, 
but  in  no  case  could  it  be  counted  upon  as  thoroughly  effective  after 
a  period  of  four  weeks. 

This  period  of  four  weeks  brings  up  the  question  as  to  the  fre- 
quency of  application  of  kerosene.  The  persistence  of  the  oil  will 
undoubtedly  vary  with  the  temperature  and  with  the  character  of 
the  pool — whether  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  or  shaded 
by  trees,  or  exposed  to  the  wind.  Three  weeks  will  probably  be  a 
good  interval  with  light  fuel  oil.  The  army  of  occupation  in  Cuba 
used  its  oil  every  two  weeks. 

The  application  of  kerosene  to  the  surface  of  the  water  can  be 
made  in  any  one  of  several  different  ways.  If  it  is  simply  poured 
upon  the  surface  it  will  spread  itself,  or  will  be  spread  rapidly  by 
light  winds.  The  spra}dng  method,  either  with  the  barrel  pump,  or 
by  knapsack  pump,  or  bucket  pumps,  has  been  frequently  used. 
The  writer  watched  the  oiling  of  ponds  with  a  spraying  pump  in  a 
New  Jersey  town  several  years  ago.  The  water  treated  was  all  in 
small  woodland  ponds,  and  there  was  a  great  waste  of  kerosene. 
The  spray  was  diffused  and  became  scattered  over  the  vegetation 
on  the  borders  of  the  pond,  a  large  share  of  it  being  wasted  in  this 
way,  while  the  shore  vegetation  was  killed.     On  small  ponds  the  oil 

a  Bui.  No.  178,  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Univ.  Cal.,  1906. 


DESTRUCTION    OF   LARV^.  77 

can  be  sprinkled  to  advantage  out  of  an  ordinary  watering  pot  with 
a  rose  nozzle  or,  for  that  matter,  pouring  it  out  of  a  dipper  or  cup  will 
be  satisfactory.  In  larger  ponds,  pumps  with  a  straight  discharge 
nozzle  may  be  used.  A  straight  stream  will  sink  and  then  rise  and 
spread  until  the  whole  surface  of  the  pond  can  be  covered  without 
waste.  The  English  workers  in  Africa  advise  mopping  the  petroleum 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water  by  means  of  cloths  tied  to  the  end  of  a 
long  stick  and  saturated  with  kerosene.  The  use  of  such  a  mop  may 
be  desirable,  even  where  a  straight  discharge  pump  has  been  used, 
in  order  to  commingle  two  or  more  surface  sheets  of  oil.  In  some  of 
his  early  work  on  Staten  Island,  Doctor  Doty,  the  health  officer  of 
New  York,  used  a  pump  with  a  submarine  discharge,  throwing  the 
oil  out  at  the  bottom  of  a  pool  and  allowing  it  to  rise  to  the  surface. 
It  seems  that  the  idea  was  to  destroy  the  insects  feeding  at  the  bottom 
more  quickly,  but  as  most  mosquito  larvae  rise  to  the  top  to  breathe 
about  every  minute,  there  is  practically  nothing  to  be  gained  by  such 
a  method  of  distributing  kerosene. 

The  use  of  larvacides  in  tropical  regions  brings  in  certain  new  fea- 
tures which  complicate  the  problem  of  mosquito  destruction  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  Colonel  Gorgas  and  his  corps  of  workers  at  Panama  have 
been  using  petroleum  very  extensively  just  as  they  did  at  Habana. 
They  find,  however,  that  at  Panama  the  rapid  growth  of  vegetation 
prevents  the  oil  from  spreading  uniformly  and  that  it  can  not  make  a 
thin  uniform  film  over  the  surface  of  water  in  which  vegetation 
grows.  They  find  also  that  algae  on  the  surface  of  the  waters  form 
with  the  oil  a  dark  scum,  which  collects  at'  the  bottom  of  shallow 
pools.  This  scum  later  breaks  up  and  floats  about  on  the  surface, 
rendering  succeeding  oilings  less  efficacious  and  necessitating  the  use 
of  larger  quantities  of  oil.  They  also  find  that  where  vegetable 
debris  collects  in  a  large  body  of  water  it  will  be  blown  about  as  a 
mass,  its  location  changing  with  the  wind,  and  thus  break  the  film  of 
oil.  Mosquito  larvae  also  hide  in  this  vegetation,  which  protects 
them  from  fish.  The  wind  blows  the  oil  to  one  side  of  the  surface 
and  it  evaporates  very  rapidly  in  the  Tropics.  During  the  rainy  sea- 
son it  is  washed  away  very  rapidly  before  it  destroys  all  of  the  larvae 
and  of  course  where  the  film  is  not  perfect  the  larvae  find  free  places 
to  breathe.  The  bulk  of  the  oil  and  the  cost  of  transportation  in 
rough  territory  for  work  on  a  large  scale  are  disadvantages.  In 
their  work  they  find  that  they  must  constantly  occupy  themselves 
in  removing  vegetation  before  oil  is  applied,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
necessity  of  using  excessive  amounts  of  oil.  They  find  that  new 
growths  of  algae  appear  to  develop  very  rapidly  after  the  oil  has 
united  with  the  previous  crop  and  sunk  to  the  bottom. 

In  the  course  of  the  Panama  work,  as  previously  stated,  phinotas 
oil  has  been  used,  and  has  been  found  to  have  the  following  advan- 


78         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

tages  over  crude  oil :  It  acts  as  a  poison  and  kills  the  larvae  very  rap- 
idly. It  brings  the  larvae  out  of  their  hiding  places  at  once  and  is 
useful  as  an  aid  to  the  detection  of  the  presence  of  mosquito  larvae. 
It  is  found  also  that  in  continuous  heavy  rains  the  larvae  are  killed 
by  the  phinotas  oil  before  the  rain  dilutes  the  treated  water  to  any 
great  extent.  They  find,  however,  that  phinotas  oil  has  certain  dis- 
advantages: It  kills  fish  in  a  solution  of  1  to  5,000,  and  it  loses  its 
efficiency  very  soon  after  application,  so  that  eggs  are  laid  upon  the 
treated  water  quickly  and  the  larvae  develop.  Doctor  Gorgas  points 
out  that  there  is  considerable  variation  in  the  quality  of  this  substance 
as  shipped  to  the  Isthmus.  Some  barrels  will  kill  larvae  quickly  in  a 
solution  of  1  to  3,000  parts  of  water,  while  other  lots  require  for  the 
same  results  1  part  to  1,000.  Doctor  Gorgas  has  recently  published 
a  list  of  the  desiderata  for  the  perfect  larvacide  for  use  in  the  Tropics, 
agreeing  with  the  opinion  expressed  by  Ronald  Ross  when  he  re- 
turned from  his  first  visit  to  Africa  that  nothing  as  yet  known  is  per- 
fectly satisfactory: 

(a)  Low  ultimate  cost. 

(b)  Ability  to  affect  and  kill  mosquito  larvae  promptly,  the  more  rapidly  the  better. 
It  must  be  effective  in  moving  water  as  well  as  in  still  water. 

(c)  Ability  to  form  a  solution  with  water  and  to  thoroughly  diffuse  and  mix  with  all 
the  water  of  a  small  pond  if  applied  only  to  one  part  thereof.  Also  the  substance  must 
not  lose  its  larvicidal  properties  for  a  week  or  more  after  its  application.  The  longer 
it  will  retain  its  larvicidal  properties  after  it  has  been  placed  in  the  body  of  water  the 
more  valuable  it  will  be. 

(d)  Ability  to  diffuse  in  water  and  through  all  parts  of  a  body  of  water  such  as  in  a 
pond  containing  grass,  water  lilies,  other  aquatic  vegetation,  and  vegetable  debris. 

(e)  Ability  to  kill  green  algae  promptly. 

(f)  A  concentrated  larvicide  is  necessary  so  that  one  part  of  it  to  five  thousand  or 
more  parts  of  water  will  promptly  kill  mosquito  larvae  and  pupae. 

(g)  Nonpoisonous  to  human  life  or  animals  when  taken  in  a  strength  of  1  to  1,000 
and  accidentally  used  as  drinking  water. 

(h)  That  it  have  the  property  of  discoloring  the  water  to  which  it  is  applied,  or  of 
giving  off  sufficient  odor  to  induce  persons  not  to  use  water  containing  it  in  solution 
for  drinking  purposes. 

(i)  That  the  odor,  if  present,  be  not  so  obnoxious  as  to  make  its  presence  in  water  in 
ponds  or  streams  near  habitations  undesirable. 

(j)  That  it  shall  have  a  safe  flash  test  and  be  nonexplosive. 

(k)  That  it  shall  be  sufficiently  stable  so  that  it  may  be  kept  "standardized." 

Decoctions  and  emulsions  of  Derris  uliginosa  have  been  recom- 
mended for  larvicidal  use,  but  experiments  conducted  at  the  Well- 
come Research  Laboratories  at  Khartoum  show  that  while  it  has  con- 
siderable potency  it  also  kills  fish,  and  that  even  in  regions  where 
these  plants  are  native  the  different  species  of  Derris  have  only  a 
limited  use  as  insecticides. 

During  the  1905  outbreak  of  yellow  fever  in  Xew  Orleans  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  destroy  mosquito  larvae  in  the  open  gutters  of 
the  city  by  the  use  of  common  salt.     Dr.  H.  A.  Veazie  wrote  us  that 


DESTRUCTION    OF   LARV^.  79 

the  results  were  good  where  the  work  was  properly  done.  Shortly 
after  operations  were  begun  there  was  a  flight  into  the  city  of  A'edes 
soUicitans  from  the  salt  marshes  northeast  of  New  Orleans.  Indig- 
nant citizens,  ascertaining  from  experts  the  name  and  habits  of  the 
species,  jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  salting  the  ditches  had  brought 
about  suitable  breeding  conditions  for  soUicitans  and  that  the  invasion 
of  the  city  by  that  species  was  a  direct  result  of  the  work  of  the  sani- 
tary officials.  Charging  mosquito  pools  with  electricity  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  tried.  Mr.  Aaron  Aaronsohn,  director  of  the 
Jewish  agricultural  experiment  station  at  Haifa,  Palestine,  tells  the 
writer  that  Professor  Blasius,  of  Berlin,  reading  a  newspaper  account 
that  some  electrical  workers  engaged  in  the  vicinity  of  a  river  used  the 
electrical  current  to  catch  fish,  began,  some  little  time  ago,  to  study 
the  effect  of  electricity  on  fish,  and  that  he  found  that  by  discharging 
a  current  into  the  water  he  could  stun  the  fish,  but  did  not  kill  them. 
Mr.  Aaronsohn  suggests  that  this  plan  may  perhaps  be  tried  to  advan- 
tage in  certain  favorably  situated  localities  to  ascertain  whether  it 
can  be  practically  used  against  mosquito  larvae. 

In  the  course  of  the  experimental  work  with  larvicides  carried  on  at 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  Colonel  Gorgas  and  his  assistants  have  con- 
structed a  larvicide  plant  at  Ancon,  and  in  the  August,  1909,  Report 
of  the  Department  of  Sanitation  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
it  is  stated  that  14,600  gallons  of  larvicide  were  made  at  a  cost  of 
$0.1416  per  gallon.     The  following  is  quoted  from  this  report: 

The  method  of  making  same  is  as  follows :  150  gallons  of  carbolic  acid  is  heated  in  a 
tank  to  a  temperature  of  212°  F.;  then  150  pounds  of  powdered  or  finely  broken  resin 
is  poured  in.  The  mixture  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F.,  30  pounds  of  caustic 
soda  is  then  added  and  solution  kept  at  212°  F.  until  a  perfectly  dark  emulsion,  with- 
out sediment,  is  obtained.  The  mixture  is  thoroughly  stirred  from  the  time  the  resin 
is  used  until  the  end. 

The  resultant  emulsion  makes  a  very  good  disinfectant  or  larvacide.  In  fact,  1  part 
of  it  to  10,000  parts  of  water  will  kill  Anopheles  larvae  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  and  1 
part  to  5.000  parts  of  water  will  kill  Anopheles  larvae  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes  or 
less.  This  property  of  killing  larvae  rapidly  is  of  great  importance  in  the  Tropics, 
where  continuous  rainy  periods  make  crude  oil  or  kerosene  much  less  valuable  as  a 
larvicide  than  it  is  in  northern  latitudes  having  less  rainfall.  Also,  the  larvicide 
acts  as  an  algicide,  and  thus  destroys  the  food  and  the  hiding  places  of  Anopheles 
larvae.  As  it  takes  up  very  little  room,  compared  with  the  area  it  can  be  spread  over, 
the  cost  of  distribution  will  be  much  less  than  that  of  crude  oil  or  kerosene.  Consider- 
ing the  large  territory  which  the  antimalarial  work  covers,  this  item  alone  is  of  great 
financial  advantage  to  the  department. 

Tests  have  recently  been  made  to  determine  approximately  how  much  of  the  new 
larvicide  will  be  needed  per  month  (rainy  season)  for  each  district. 

Although  this  larvicide  will  be  used  to  a  large  extent,  yet  we  shall  continue  to  use 
crude  oil  for  streams  having  a  fair  velocity,  as  such  application  gives  excellent  results 
and  is  as  economical  as  larvicide  would  be,  as  the  oil  is  spread  in  a  very  fine  film 
automatically.  In  order  to  make  the  crude  oil  drip  with  continuous  regularity,  a 
piece  of  metal  similar  to  that  part  of  a  flat-wick  lamp  which  holds  the  flat  wick  is 
fastened  to  the  oil  container.     It  is  made  somewhat  larger  than  the  wick,  so  that  the 


80  PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

wick  fits  it  loosely  when  saturated  with  the  grade  of  fuel  oil  we  use.  This  metal  wick 
chamber  is  fitted  to  the  oil  container  about  3  inches  from  its  base.  The  space  below 
the  wick  chamber  is  filled  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  or  of  larvicide.  As  the  oil 
is  attracted  along  the  wick  by  capillary  attraction,  it  comes  into  contact  with  the 
larvicide  or  caustic  soda  and  is  "cut" — rendered  thinner.  This  method  of  procedure 
prevents  the  wick  from  being  clogged  by  the  thick  fuel  oil  and  enables  the  wick  to 
drip  the  oil  desired. 

In  the  September,  1909,  report  it  is  stated  that  the  new  larvicide 
was  giving  very  satisfactory  results  and  would  undoubtedly  reduce 
the  cost  of  antimalarial  work,  besides  being  more  effective  than  crude 
oil  in  many  places.  It  seems  to  have  some  value  as  a  destroyer  of 
vegetation.  In  the  October  report  satisfaction  with  its  use  is  again 
expressed,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  fact  that  it  kills  the  grass  at  the 
edges  of  the  ditches  will  be  of  importance  in  reducing  the  cost  of 
antimalarial  work. 

ORGANIZATION   FOR   COMMUNITY   WORK. 

While  in  a  large  measure  it  is  true  that  every  individual  house- 
holder practically  rears  upon  his  own  premises  the  majority  of  the 
mosquitoes  that  bother  him,  still  in  a  closely  built  city  those  reared 
by  one's  neighbors  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  isolated 
country  houses  the  character  of  the  adjacent  region  must  be  con- 
sidered by  the  individual  who  concerns  himself  with  this  work,  but 
even  here  some  sort  of  an  organization  is  desirable,  and  even  fre- 
quently necessary,  as  in  cases  where  swamp  lands  are  to  be  drained 
or  where  occasional  invasions  of  such  a  migratory  species  as  Aides 
sollicitans  are  to  be  feared.  The  control  of  all  sources  of  mosquito 
supply  in  case  of  fresh  water  or  brackish  swamp  land  is  usually  too 
great  a  task  for  the  individual,  although  on  the  large  estates  of  great 
proprietors  such  work  has  been  done  at  individual  expense.  In  any 
sort  of  community,  however,  organization  is  necessary,  not  only  to 
carry  out  the  actual  work,  but  to  produce  and  to  emphasize  a  uni- 
versal sentiment  in  favor  of  the  mosquito  crusade — a  sentiment  so 
strong  and  so  general  that  every  individual  will  cheerfully  take  part 
in  the  work.  The  pioneers  in  this  country  who,  in  1901  and  1902, 
attempted  to  arouse  such  a  public  sentiment  had  much  difficulty  in 
educating  the  people  and  in  securing  funds,  but  lately  it  has  been  an 
easier  matter.  Many  communities,  large  and  small,  have  taken  up 
antimosquito  measures,  and  such  large  cities  as  New  York,  Balti- 
more, New  Orleans,  and  Nashville  have  given  the  question  serious 
consideration  in  their  city  councils  and  in  their  boards  of  health,  and 
have  entered  upon  measures  of  greater  or  less  efficacy.  Many  smaller 
towns  have  begun  the  crusade  also,  and  those  which  have  been  espe- 
cially active  have  been  communities  of  summer  resort.  One  of  the 
early  attempts  was  the  formation  of  the  North  Shore  Improvement 
Association  of  Long  Island,  which  undertook  a  mosquito  campaign 


ORGANIZATION   FOR   COMMUNITY   WORK.  81 

involving  over  25  square  miles  of  territory  along  the  north  shore  of 
Long  Island,  the  territory  including  several  villages  and  many  country 
homes  of  wealthy  people.  Following  the  first  year's  work  of  this 
association  a  national  antimosquito  society  was  formed  to  encourage 
just  this  kind  of  work,  and  this  society  has  published  instructions 
and  pamphlets  of  information  which  are  at  the  disposal  of  all  com- 
munities desiring  to  enter  upon  the  task  of  freeing  themselves  from 
mosquitoes. 

Work  of  this  kind  carried  on  in  Cuba,  in  Panama,  and  in  various 
English  colonies  will  be  referred  to  in  later  sections.  All  have  been 
well  organized  and  actively  carried  forward  and  have  been  successful 
in  reducing  the  number  of  mosquitoes  and  in  correspondingly  reducing 
such  diseases  as  are  carried  by  mosquitoes. 

Theoretically,  community  work  should  be  done  under  official 
auspices,  and  should  be  inaugurated  by  boards  of  health,  but  official 
action  is  slow,  even  in  the  United  States,  where  there  is,  as  a  rule, 
less  red  tape  than  in  older  countries.  Moreover,  official  action  in 
sanitary  measures  is  often  conservative,  as  well  as  slow.  As  already 
pointed  out,  the  health  question  is  not  the  only  one  involved.  Abun- 
dance of  mosquitoes  means  enormous  economic  loss  to  a  communit}', 
entirely  aside  from  the  important  question  of  health,  and  individual 
property  owners  realize  this  more  than  do  official  bodies.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  cite  the  increased  value  of  real  estate  at  summer  resorts 
where  the  mosquito  scourge  has  been  wiped  out,  and  the  great  value 
of  reclaimed  marsh  land  for  manufacturing  sites  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  great  cities,  or  for  agricultural  purposes  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  great  centers  of  population.  An  unusual  reason  for 
anti-mosquito  work  developed  a  few  years  ago.  A  famous  sports- 
man, who  was  at  the  same  time  a  captain  of  industry  and  had  also 
been  a  cabinet  officer  at  Washington,  spent  large  sums  of  money 
in  the  vicinity  of  Sheepshead  Bay,  Long  Island,  to  reduce  the  abun- 
dance of  mosquitoes,  because  his  blooded  race  horses  were  losing 
condition  from  their  bites,  although  he  had  previously  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  the  mosquito  problem  from  the  standpoint  of  human  health 
and  convenience  or  from  the  standpoint  of  the  value  of  the  real  estate 
in  that  vicinity,  of  which  he  was  a  large  holder. 

In  community  work,  therefore,  as  well  as  in  most  other  measures 
of  reform,  the  organization  of  private  citizens  has  usually  been  the 
initial  step.  Many  communities  have  their  own  village  or  town  im- 
provement associations,  and  many  cities  have  their  citizens'  asso- 
ciations constantly  alert  to  discover  needed  reforms  and  improve- 
ments and  to  bring  them  emphatically  to  the  notice  of  their  elected 
representatives  on  the  city  council  and  to  the  mayor's  appointees 
on  the  board  of  health.  It  is  through  the  mosquito  committees  of 
such  associations  that  very  much  of  the  work  in  this  direction  has 
37713— Bull.  88—10 6 


82          PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

been  agitated  and  inaugurated,  and  doubtless  this  method  will  con- 
tinue most  effectively  for  some  time  to  come. 

The  first  step  in  undertaking  such  work  is  to  interest  several 
responsible  persons  whose  names  carry  weight  in  the  community, 
and  then  to  raise  a  small  fund,  either  by  appropriations  from  funds 
at  the  disposal  of  the  improvement  society,  or  whatever  it  may  be, 
or  by  private  subscription.  Then  these  persons,  forming  a  com- 
mittee, should  issue  a  circular  to  every  householder,  signed  by  the 
whole  committee,  reciting  very  briefly  the  well-known  facts  concern- 
ing the  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes  and  the  measures  which  should 
at  once  be  taken  by  householders.  A  good  plan  also  would  be  to 
have  a  public  lecture  given  by  some  expert,  well  illustrated,  to  which 
all  householders  should  be  invited.  An  excellent  circular  of  the 
character  just  described  was  issued  in  the  early  summer  of  1901  as 
follows : 

The  Village  Improvement  Society  of  South  Orange. 

south  orange,  n.  j. 

May  27,  1901. 

The  breeding  place  of  the  mosquitoes  that  may  infest  your  house  may  be  looked 
for  within  your  own  house  or  grounds,  or  in  your  immediate  neighborhood. 

The  mosquito  lays  its  eggs  only  upon  standing  water  and  passes  the  first  ten  days  of 
its  existence  in  the  water. 

Without  standing  water  there  can  be  no  mosquitoes. 

Dr.  Howard  says:  "I  feel  sure  that  the  cesspools  in  South  Orange  must  be  responsi- 
ble for  a  great  deal  of  your  mosquito  supply."'     Therefore: 

Look  to  your  cesspools,  cisterns,  water  tanks,  and  any  barrels  or  other  receptacles 
in  which  water  may  stand  for  a  few  days,  either  inside  or  outside  the  house. 

It  is  suggested  that  you  at  once  do  away  with  every  unnecessary  water  receptacle. 

Put  kerosene  oil  in  your  cesspools  and  on  surface  of  necessary  standing  water  once  in 
three  weeks. 

Oil  placed  on  surface  should  not  affect  the  taste  of  water  drawn  from  beneath  the 
surface,  but  when  that  is  not  considered  advisable  water  receptacles  should  be 
screened  with  a  fine  mesh  screen. 

The  mosquito  being  not  only  a  serious  annoyance,  but  a  constant  menace  to  health/ 
its  extermination  becomes  a  matter  of  public  concern. 

The  cooperation  of  every  household  is  requested. 

Please  report  to the  location  of  any  pools  of  stagnant  water  in 

your  neighborhood. 

After  the  issuing  of  the  circular  or  the  holding  of  the  public  lecture, 
or  both,  if  the  members  of  the  committee  are  too  busy,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be,  to  engage  to  any  extent  in  the  actual  superintending 
work,  an  intelligent  superintendent  must  be  chosen  who  will  famil- 
iarize himself  with  the  biology  of  mosquitoes  and  especially  with 
the  character  of  mosquito  breeding  places  in  general.  He  should 
at  once  be  put  to  work  upon  a  survey  of  the  mosquito  topography 
of  the  neighborhood.  It  will  be  well  for  him  to  make  a  map  upon 
which  every  breeding  place,  aside  from  the  chance  receptacles  about 


ORGANIZATION   FOR   COMMUNITY   WORK.  83 

houses,  should  be  noted  with  the  greatest  accuracy  and  care.  Every 
house  having  an  uncovered  water-tank  or  having  rain-water  barrels 
should  also  be  noted,  and  for  each  locality  the  most  effective  as  well 
as  the  most  economical  remedy  should  be  recorded.  If  these  reme- 
dies demand  any  large-scale  work  estimates  of  the  necessary  expen- 
ditures should  be  indicated. 

Such  a  careful  report  and  map  having  been  prepared  and  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  committee  the  amount  of  funds  necessary  can 
readily  be  estimated,  and  the  expenditure  of  such  sums  as  it  is  found 
possible  to  raise  can  be  considered  and  agreed  upon.  The  work  can 
then  be  easily  carried  on  through  the  summer  under  the  direction  of 
this  superintendent,  and  of  course  the  amount  of  the  expenditure 
and  the  number  of  employes  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  local 
mosquito-breeding  possibilities. 

Some  small  communities  will  find  that  a  full  understanding  of  the 
problem  on  the  part  of  individual  householders  will  bring  about 
great  relief  as  the  result  of  individual  work,  and  that  the  only  organ- 
ization necessary  will  be  perhaps  the  signing  of  a  pledge  by  indi- 
viduals to  take  care  of  their  own  premises.  In  other  communities 
the  matter  will  be  a  little  more  serious,  but  there  will  be  some  where 
the  employment  of  a  single  man  for  two  or  three  days  a  week  through- 
out the  summer  will  result  in  freedom  from  mosquitoes.  Again, 
however,  in  larger  communities  the  enforcement  of  municipal  regu- 
lations will  be  found  to  be  necessary  before  a  desirable  result  can  be 
obtained,  and  where  the  village  is  built  upon  swampy  land  or  is  sur- 
rounded by  swamps  the  expenditure  of  considerable  sums  of  money 
will  be  found  to  be  imperative. 

In  every  community,  however,  there  will  pretty  surely  be  ultra- 
conservative,  recalcitrant,  and  ignorant  citizens — people  who  will 
not  take  the  trouble  to  prevent  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes  on  their 
own  premises — people  in  fact  who  will  violently  object  to  the  en- 
trance on  their  premises  of  an  individual  who  will  do  the  work  for 
them.  Such  cases  are  not  numerous,  but  they  are  always  difficult 
to  handle,  and,  in  the  absence  of  municipal  action,  moral  suasion 
must  be  tried  in  the  most  ingenious  ways  which  the  committee  can 
devise.  Dr.  Ronald  Ross,  in  his  excellent  work  u Mosquito  Brigades," 
in  writing  of  such  persons,  puts  it  very  happily  in  the  following  words: 

The  qualities  chiefly  necessary  [in  a  superintendent]  are  energy,  persistence,  and 
an  entire  indifference  to  public  or  private  opinion.  The  need  of  the  first  two  is 
obvious;  that  of  the  last  requires  some  explanation.  The  self-appointed  superin- 
tendent will  be  at  once  astonished,  and  perhaps  alarmed,  at  finding  that  his  philan- 
thropic and  wholly  harmless  efforts  are  met  at  the  outset  by  a  storm  of  letters  to  the 
local  press,  demonstrating  the  absurdity  and  even  immorality  of  his  intentions;  prov- 
ing that  mosquitoes  cannot  be  destroyed,  that  they  spring  from  grass  and  trees;  that 
they  can  be  destroyed,  but  that  it  is  wicked  to  make  the  attempt  because  they  were 
created  to  punish  man;  that  they  do  not  carry  malaria,  because  malaria  is  a  gas  which 


84         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

rushes  out  of  holes  in  the  ground,  and  rises  as  a  blue  mist  over  the  country;  they  do 
not  cany  yellow  fever,  which  is  due  to  the  effect  of  the  tropical  sun  on  rotting  vegeta- 
tion; that  they  do  carry  malaria  and  yellow  fever,  but  in  such  small  quantities  that 
they  act  beneficially  as  unpaid  vaccinators  of  these  diseases;  and  so  on  .a  It  is  possi- 
ble to  ignore  all  such  epistles,  because  where  they  do  not  contradict  each  other,  some 
one  else  is  sure  to  contradict  them;  but  an  occasional  letter  in  reply  does  good,  and, 
to  speak  practically  but  rather  cynically,  serves  to  stimulate  the  necessary  public 
interest  in  the  work  by  keeping  the  letter-writers  at  such  a  pitch  of  exasperation  that 
they  give  the  campaign  a  constant  stream  of  gratuitous  advertisement  in  the  news- 
papers.    We  are  permitted  to  be  cynical  in  a  good  cause. 

Fortunately,  operations  against  mosquitoes  can  be  conducted  on  a  large  scale  without 
much  reference  to  private  opinion — fortunately,  because  the  inertia  of  the  masses 
regarding  new  pathological  discoveries  is  so  great  that  were  we  to  depend  upon  con- 
verting them,  nothing  would  be  done  for  half  a  century.  For  some  inscrutable  reason 
the  man  in  the  street,  though  he  would  scarcely  think  of  contradicting  a  lawyer  or  an 
engineer  on  matters  of  law  or  engineering,  finds  himself  quite  equal  to  exposing  the 
absurdities  of  the  whole  medical  faculty  on  a  medical  matter. 

These  operations  require  no  sacrifices  or  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  general  public. 
Most  householders  are  glad  enough  to  have  their  mosquito  larvae  destroyed,  and  their 
backyards  cleaned  up  for  nothing.  The  reader,  therefore,  if  he  sees  fit  to  start  the 
work  we  are  considering,  may  quietly  proceed  in  it  undisturbed  by  criticism,  and  may 
calculate  upon  receiving  not  only  as  much  public  support  as  his  work  will  require 
during  its  progress,  but  the  thanks  of  his  fellows  at  its  termination.  Indeed,  the 
majority  of  the  public  will  not  be  slow  to  recognize  the  value  of  his  efforts,  even  if 
they  do  not  understand  the  scientific  reasons  which  have  induced  him  to  make  them. 

In  community  work,  after  making  an  effort  to  insure  the  absence 
of  household  breeding,  the  attention  of  the  superintendent  should  be 
devoted  to  chance  pools  along  the  public  roadway  and  to  breeding 
places  in  unused  land.  Drainage  or  filling  are  the  best  measures  to 
adopt.  The  superintendent  will  find  it  advisable  to  attempt  first  to 
extirpate  those  breeding  places  from  which  the  greatest  numbers  of 
mosquitoes  are  issuing.  In  this  way  he  will  the  sooner  bring  about 
an  appreciable  diminution  of  the  number  of  the  insects,  and  of  course 
the  sooner  this  diminution  is  noticed  by  the  citizens  the  sooner  will 
popular  sentiment  unanimously  support  the  work.  The  less  populous 
breeding  places  may  await  treatment  until  a  later  date. 

Large-scale  operations  requiring  a  considerable  expenditure  of 
money  must  be  organized  very  perfectly  as  to  detail.  The  first 
example  of  this  large-scale  work  done  in  the  United  States  was  carried 
on  in  the  most  intelligent  way  by  the  North  Shore  Improvement  Asso- 
ciation of  Long  Island,  mentioned  above.  Here,  as  an  initial  step, 
work  was  done  by  the  superintendent  and  engineer,  Mr.  H.  C.  Weeks, 
during  the  summer  of  1901.  Mr.  Weeks  completed  the  survey  of  the 
large  territory  and  estimated  the  cost  of  all  operations.  Another 
survey  was  made  by  two  biologists,  Prof.  C.  B.  Davenport  and 
Mr.  F.  E.  Lutz,  of  the  Cold  Spring  Harbor  laboratory,  then  of  the 
Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences.     These  gentlemen  positively 

a  Note. — Dr.  Ross  states  that  he  has  seen  every  one  of  these  statements,  and  many 
others  equally  absurd,  made  at  least  half  a  dozen  times  in  the  British  press. 


ORGANIZATION   FOR   COMMUNITY   WORK.  85 

identified  all  breeding  places.  Still  another  survey  was  made  by  the 
late  Prof.  X.  S.  Shaler,  of  Harvard  University,  who  advised  concern- 
ing the  best  methods  of  reclaiming  the  salt  marshes  included  in  the 
territory  where  the  brackish-water  mosquito  breeds.  Upon  the  basis 
of  these  surveys  and  reports  the  association  began  in  1902  its  active 
work  of  extermination. 

The  following  is  Doctor  Ross's  summary  of  antimosquito  work, 
and  it  is  so  admirable  that  it  is  quoted  in  full: 

SUMMARY. 

17.  Summary  of  objects: 

(1)  We  do  not  propose  to  exterminate  mosquitoes  in  any  entire  Continent. 
We  propose  only  to  deal  with  them  in  the  town  in  which  ice  live,  and  in  its  suburbs. 

(2)  We  do  not  propose  to  get  rid  of  every  mosquito  even  in  this  town. 
We  aim  only  at  reducing  the  number  of  the  insects  as  much  as  possible. 

(3)  We  do  not  think  it  possible  to  drain  or  otherwise  treat  every  breeding-place  in 
the  town. 

We  aim  at  dealing  with  as  many  as  possible. 

(4)  We  can  not  exclude  mosquitoes  which  may  just  possibly  be  blown  into  the  town 
from  miles  away. 

We  content  ourselves  with  preventing  the  insects  breeding  in  the  town  itself. 

18.  Summary  of  methods: 

(1)  We  start  work  at  once  with  whatever  means  we  can  scrape  together. 

(2)  We  operate  from  a  center  outward. 

(3)  We  clear  houses,  back  yards,  and  gardens  of  all  rubbish;  empty  tubs  and  cisterns 
containing  larva?,  or  destroy  the  larvae  in  them  by  means  of  oil. 

(4)  We  show  people  how  to  do  these  things  for  themselves,  and  how  to  protect  tubs 
and  cisterns  by  means  of  wire  gauze. 

(5)  When  we  have  cleared  as  many  houses  as  we  determine  to  deal  with,  we  clear 
them  over  again  and  again. 

(6)  We  fill  up  or  drain  away  all  the  pools,  ditches,  old  wells,  and  puddles  we  can — 
especially  those  which  contain  most  larva?. 

(7)  Such  pools  as  can  not  be  filled  up  or  drained  are  deepened  and  cleared  of  weeds 
if  they  contain  larva?. 

(8)  Streams  and  water  courses  which  possess  larva?  are  '"trained." 

(9)  Where  we  can  do  nothing  else  we  destroy  the  larva?  periodically  with  oil,  or  by 
brushing  them  out  with  brooms,  or  by  other  means. 

(10)  We  endeavor  to  interest  our  neighbors  in  the  work,  and  to  educate  the  town 
into  maintaining  a  special  gang  of  men  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  streets  and 
gardens  absolutely  free  of  stagnant,  mosquito-bearing  water. 

19.  Motto:  Our  motto  should  be  one  which  I  think  will  shortly  become  the  first  law 
of  tropical  sanitation,  namely,  "No  Stagnant  Water." 

After  concluding  an  account  of  his  own  personal  work  at  Lloyds 
Neck,  Long  Island,  and  of  the  work  done  by  the  North  Shore  Improve- 
ment Association,  Mr.  W.  J.  Matheson,  speaking  before  the  First 
Anti-Mosquito  Convention  in  New  York,  December  16,  1903,  con- 
cluded that  as  the  result  of  the  work  carried  on  it  had  been  demon- 
strated that,  with  the  exception  of  the  salt-marsh  mosquitoes,  the 
mosquito  nuisance  can  be  controlled  and  abated  in  almost  any  locality 
where  intelligent  cooperation  can  be  secured  and  a  systematic  inspec- 
tion made  of  the  premises  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  breeding 


86         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

places.  Extermination,  in  his  opinion,  will  exterminate  just  as  far 
as  the  intelligent  landowner  is  willing  to  carry  it,  but  that  it  can  not 
be  done  once  and  for  all  any  more  than  weeding  a  garden  or  the 
cropping  of  a  lawn  can  be  done  once  and  for  all.  He  concludes  his 
paper  with  the  following  words : 

So  far  as  my  experience  goes,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  mosquitoes  can  be  as 
completely  exterminated  in  any  locality  as  dirt  can  be  swept  from  a  building,  or  as 
weeds  from  a  walk,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Culex  sollicitans,  and  with  the  exer- 
cise of  no  more  intelligence  and  much  less  labor  than  is  required  in  the  performance 
of  many  domestic  duties.  My  experience  would  lead  me  to  conclude  that  if  mos- 
quitoes continue  to  exist  in  any  locality  it  is  because  the  people  are  too  indifferent 
to  the  nuisance  to  take  the  trouble  to  be  rid  of  it. 

THE    IMPORTANCE    OF    INTERESTING    CHILDREN. 

Under  the  general  head  of  " Remedies"  we  have  mentioned  the 
efforts  made  by  Professor  Hodge,  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  to  interest  the 
school  children  of  the  city  in  the  search  for  mosquito  breeding  places. 
This  must  have  been  in  1901-2.  But  the  most  serious  and  pro- 
ductive effort  seems  to  have  been  made  at  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  a 
year  or  so  later,  at  the  initiative  of  Dr.  J.  S.  Lankford,  of  that  city. 

In  November,  1903,  there  were  cases  of  yellow  fever  in  San  Anto- 
nio which  caused  several  deaths,  and  an  inexcusable  interruption  of 
commerce  that  cost  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars.  In  the  effort 
to  allay  the  panic,  the  existence  of  yellow  fever  was  denied,  not  only 
by  persons  having  business  interests  in  the  city,  but  by  many  medical 
men  as  well.  Very  many  adults  not  only  denied  the  existence  of  the 
fever  in  the  city,  but  denied  the  relation  between  the  mosquitoes  and 
the  fever.  Perhaps  the  majority  of  the  adults  seemed  too  old  to 
learn;  and  to  the  enlightened  physicians  it  appeared  that  it  was 
impossible  to  begin  education  at  the  wrong  end  of  life. 

The  chairman  of  the  sanitary  committee  of  the  school  board 
(Doctor  Lankford)  grasped  the  happy  idea  that  if  the  children  were 
properly  educated,  sanitary  matters  in  the  future  would  be  much 
better  attended  to.  He  suggested  to  the  board  that  it  would  be 
valuable  to  educate  all  of  the  school  children  of  the  city  in  prophy- 
laxis and  make  sanitarians  out  of  them  all.  The  school  board  heart- 
ily approved  of  the  proposition,  and  the  campaign  was  at  once  begun 
to  educate  the  children  on  the  subject  of  Insects  as  Disease  Carriers. 
The  best  recent  medical  literature  on  the  subject  was  procured  and 
furnished  to  the  teachers,  and  a  circular  letter  was  sent  to  them  out- 
lining a  proposed  course  and  offering  a  cash  prize  for  the  best  model 
lesson  on  the  subject.  Teachers  became  deeply  interested  in  the 
subject.  A  crude  aquarium,  with  eggs  and  wrigglers,  was  kept  in 
every  schoolroom,  where  the  pupils  could  watch  them  develop;  and 
large  magnifying  glasses  were  furnished  in  order  that  they  might 
study  to  better  advantage.     The  children  were  encouraged  to  make 


ORGANIZATION    FOR   COMMUNITY   WORK.  87 

drawings  on  the  blackboard  of  mosquitoes  in  all  stages  of  develop- 
ment; lessons  were  given  and  compositions  were  written  on  the  sub- 
ject. Competitive  examinations  were  held,  and  groups  of  boys  and 
girls  were  sent  out  with  the  teachers  on  searching  expeditions  to  find 
the  breeding  places.  Rivalry  sprang  up  between  the  10,000  public 
school  children  of  the  city  in  the  matter  of  finding  and  report- 
ing to  the  health  office  the  greatest  number  of  breeding  places  found 
and  breeding  places  destroyed.  Record  was  kept  on  the  blackboards 
in  the  schools  for  information  as  to  the  progress  of  the  competition 
and  great  enthusiasm  was  stirred  up.  In  addition  to  these  measures, 
a  course  of  stereopticon  lectures  was  arranged,  grouping  the  pupils 
in  audiences  of  about  1,000  from  the  high  school  down,  and,  in  Doctor 
Lankford's  words — 

It  was  an  inspiring  sight  to  watch  these  audiences  of  a  thousand  children,  thoughtful, 
still  as  death,  and  staring  with  wide-open  eyes  at  the  wonders  revealed  by  a  micro- 
scope. It  seemed  to  me  that  in  bringing  this  great  question  of  preventive  medicine 
before  public  school  children  we  had  hit  upon  a  power  for  good  that  could  scarcely  be 
overestimated. 

The  result  of  this  work,  it  is  pleasing  to  say,  was  a  decided  diminu- 
tion in  the  matter  of  mosquitoes  in  San  Antonio.  There  was  some 
opposition  among  the  people,  but  the  movement  on  the  whole  was 
very  popular.  One  result  of  this  work  was  that  while  there  had  pre- 
viously been  from  50  to  60  deaths  a  year  from  malarial  trouble, 
the  mortality  was  reduced  75  per  cent  the  first  year  after  this  work 
was  begun,  and  in  the  second  year  it  was  entirely  eliminated  from  the 
mortality  records  of  San  Antonio. 

In  organizing  community  work  against  mosquitoes,  the  school 
children  hereafter  must  be  counted  upon  as  a  most  important  factor. 
Almost  every  child  is  a  born  naturalist,  and  interest  in  such  things 
comes  to  them  more  readily  than  anything  else  outside  of  the  neces- 
sities of  life.  They  are  quick-witted,  wonderfully  quick-sighted,  and 
as  finders  of  breeding  places  they  can  not  be  approached  except  by 
adults  of  the  most  especial  training.  One  of  the  first  steps  that  a 
community  should  take  is,  therefore,  the  encouragement  of  the  inter- 
est of  the  children  in  the  public  schools. 

RECENT    WORK    IN    GERMANY. 

The  city  of  Leipzig  quite  recently  has  begun  a  crusade  against 
malaria  under  the  direction  of  the  city  council.  The  following  ac- 
count of  this  work  was  sent  in  by  United  States  Consul  S.  P.  Warner, 
and  is  published  in  the  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports  for  April 
20,  1909: 

So  many  cases  of  malaria  have  recently  occurred  in  those  sections  of  Leipzig  which 
are  adjacent  to  any  one  of  the  four  rivulets  which  flow  through  the  city  that  the  city 
council  has  decided  to  adopt  stringent  measures  to  exterminate  the  mosquitoes 
(Anopheles)  that  spread  the  disease. 


88         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

In  order  that  the  work  of  extermination  may  be  thoroughly  and  systematically  car- 
ried out,  the  city  council  has  notified  all  housekeepers  in  the  infected  sections  of  the 
city  to  carefully  examine  their  houses  or  apartments  for  mosquitoes  and  to  destroy  any 
that  may  be  found.  Every  household  in  the  districts  concerned  has  been  furnished 
by  the  city  council  with  a  large  circular,  which,  in  addition  to  information  as  to  the 
cause  and  spreading  of  malaria,  contains  advice  as  to  the  best  means  of  destroying  the 
malaria  mosquitoes. 

Certain  dates  have  been  specified  between  which  the  houses  are  to  be  searched  and 
the  mosquitoes  destroyed.  At  the  expiration  of  the  time  specified  inspectors  ap- 
pointed by  the  city  council  will  visit  each  house  and  apartment  and  make  careful 
examinations  to  see  that  the  work  of  exterminating  the  mosquitoes  has  been  properly 
carried  out.  Those  who  fail  to  comply  with  the  legulations  promptly  and  thoroughly 
will  be  subject  to  a  fine  of  about  $7.50. 

WORK    ALONG   RIVER    FRONTS    IN    EGYPT. 

Communities  living  along  river  fronts  may  have  good  antimos- 
quito  work  hampered  by  the  constant  reintroduction  of  a  mosquito 
supply  from  boats  landing  at  their  river  fronts.  This  point  has  been 
especially  noted  in  the  course  of  the  excellent  work  done  at  Khartoum. 
The  following  passage  is  taken  from  the  first  report  of  the  Wellcome 
Laboratories,  pages  21-22: 

At  an  early  period  the  steamers  were  found  to  be  largely  infected,  especially  with 
the  larvae  of  Stegomyia  fasciata,  and  to  a  less  extent  by  those  of  Culex  fatigans .  Ano- 
phelines,  either  as  larvae  or  imagines,  have  never  been  met  with;  but  up-country,  as 
will  be  noted  later,  the  adults  are  frequently  to  be  seen  on  board,  and  may  remain  as 
passengers  for  a  considerable  period.  At  first  it  was  decided  to  use  lime  for  the  steamer 
bilges,  but  this  was  said,  erroneously  I  believe,  to  act  upon  iron  and  to  be  unsuitable. 
Consequently  crude  petroleum  was  recommended,  though  not  so  good  nor  so  easily 
applied .  Along  with  this  the  periodical  emptying  of  the  bilge  and  fumigation  with  the 
sulphur  squibs  described  by  Colonel  Giles  were  advised,  the  latter  to  get  rid  of  the 
adult  insects.  Unfortunately  in  the  case  of  the  steamers,  familiarity  had  evidently 
bred  contempt,  for,  at  first,  despite  the  cooperation  of  the  director  of  the  steamers  and 
boats  department,  little  energy  was  displayed  by  the  engineers  in  charge  and  the 
preventive  measures  were  largely  ignored,  and  in  some  instances  even  ridiculed.  This 
was  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as  there  is  no  doubt  that  mosquitoes  can  be  banished  from 
all  the  steamers  if  a  little  care  and  trouble  were  taken.  Mr.  Beadnell,  of  the  Geological 
Survey,  carried  out  these  simple  methods  on  the  S.  S.  "Nubia,"  and  practically 
cleared  her  of  mosquitoes,  so  that  for  the  first  time  he  was  able  to  sleep  below  in  com- 
fort. A  great  improvement  also  resulted  in  the  case  of  the  gunboat  "Zafir,"  in  which 
I  went  to  Dueim  and  found  to  be  simply  swarming  with  adult  Culices  and  their  larvae, 
while  these  measures  absolutely  prevented  any  mosquitoes  breeding  out  on  board  the 
S.  S.  "Amka"  during  a  period  of  nearly  two  months,  the  greater  part  of  which  was 
passed  in  regions  swarming  with  these  winged  pests.  Latterly,  I  am  glad  to  say,  the 
engineers  have  been  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  doing  all  in  their  power  to  aid  the 
brigade.  This  is  the  more  necessary,  as  it  is  easy  for  the  steamers  to  infect  the  town 
and  thus  spoil  much  of  the  work  done  and  render  it  futile.  I  am  certain  that  this  has 
occurred  in  many  instances    *    *    *. 


EXAMPLES   OF   MOSQUITO   EXTERMINATIVE    MEASURES.  89 

EXAMPLES  OF  MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATIVE  MEASURES  IN  DIF- 
FERENT PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD  AND  OF  THE  SANITARY  RE- 
SULTS FOLLOWING  THEM. 

It  is  proposed  in  this  section  to  describe  briefly  some  of  the  most 
striking  examples  of  successful  warfare  against  mosquitoes  that  have 
been  carried  out  since  1900  and  to  bring  them  together  into  one 
consecutive  account,  a  task  that  has  heretofore  not  been  attempted. 
Of  many  of  them  the  details  are  not  well  known  on  account  of  the 
inaccessibility  of  the  documents  of  record. 

FEDERATED    MALAY    STATES. 

The  work  was  begun  at  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  in  1901  and 
1902,  the  object  being  to  abolish  malaria,  which  was  disastrous  in  its 
prevalence  and  virulence,  by  the  extermination  of  mosquitoes  by 
means  of  extensive  drainage  and  the  abolishing  of  breeding  places. 
The  town  of  Klang  is  situated  on  swampy  ground  lying  between  the 
Klang  River — from  which  it  takes  its  name — and  a  semicircle  of  low 
hills.  Klang  was  formerly  the  terminus  of  the  government  railway 
and  the  port  of  the  State.  The  river  navigation,  however,  was  diffi- 
cult, and  a  new  port  was  selected  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which 
was  opened  in  September,  1901,  and  named  Port  Swettenham. 
The  anchorage  was  good,  but  a  half  mile  of  mangrove  swamp  inter- 
vened between  the  shore  and  a  wide  extent  of  flat  peaty  land.  The 
mangrove  swamp  was  intersected  by  a  narrow  road  running  up  from 
the  coast  to  Klang,  some  5  miles  away. 

After  Port  Swettenham  was  opened  malaria  increased  alarmingly; 
almost  all  of  the  laborers  were  attacked,  and  many  severe  cases  oc- 
curred on  board  ships  lying  alongside  the  wharves.  A  commission 
was  formed  consisting  of  physicians  and  engineers,  and  antimosquito 
work  of  an  extremely  effective  and  complete  character  was  carried 
out.  The  following  condensed  account  of  the  operations,  and  the 
tables  showing  striking  results  in  the  reduction  of  malaria,  are  taken 
from  an  article  by  E.  A.  O.  Travers,  state  surgeon,  Selangor,  and 
Malcolm  Watson,  district  surgeon,  Klang,  published  in  the  Journal 
of  Tropical  Medicine  for  July  2,  1906: 

Port  Swettenham. — An  area  of  about  110  acres,  formerly  low-lying  swampy  land 
covered  with  mangrove  trees,  has  been  cleared  and  carefully  drained.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  railway,  government  buildings,  and  town  site  a  considerable  area  has 
been  filled  in  and  leveled,  partly  to  do  away  with  the  breeding  grounds  of  mosquitoes 
and  partly  to  provide  building  sites.  The  whole  area  not  occupied  by  buildings 
or  roads  is  now  covered  by  grass. 

The  total  expenditure  on  works  other  than  the  preparation  of  building  sites  has 
been  (to  the  end  of  1905)  £7,000  [$34,020],  and  the  annual  cost  of  upkeep  of  drains, 
etc.,  is  approximately  £40  [$194.40]  for  clearing  earth  drains,  and  for  town  gardeners, 
£100  [$486]. 


90         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Klang.—  The  area  affected  by  the  operations  is  about  332  acres.  Twenty-five 
acres  of  virgin  jungle  and  80  acres  of  dense  secondary  growth  (in  places  30  to  40  feet 
high)  have  been  cleared  and  36  acres  of  permanent  swamp  have  been  drained.  The 
areas  cleared  are  now  mainly  under  grass. 

The  total  expenditure  to  end  of  1905  has  been  £3,100  [$15,066],  and  the  cost  of 
annual  upkeep  is  about  £60  [$291.60]  for  clearing  earth  drains,  and  £210  [$1,020.60] 
for  town  gardeners. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  following  statistics  of  cases  of  malaria  treated  at  the  district 
hospital,  Klang,  the  improvement  in  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  areas  treated 
began  immediately  after  the  completion  of  the  drainage  and  other  works  and  has 
continued  to  date. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  cases  of  malaria  admitted  to  the  Klang  hospital  from  Klang 
town  and  Port  Swettenham,  as  compared  to  the  number  of  cases  admitted  from  other 
parts  of  the  district. 


Residence. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

Klang 

334 
88 
188 
197 

129 

48 

28 

12 

Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  ° 

70 
204 

21 
150 

4 
266 

11 

Other  parts  of  district 

353 

Total 

807    

219 

298 

376 

a  Certain  persons  lived  some  nights  in  Klang  and  some  in  Port  Swettenham. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  deaths  from  fever  and  other  diseases 
which  have  occurred  at  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  during  the  last  six  years.  The 
population  in  1901  was  about  4,000,  but  has  largely  increased  since. 

Deaths  in  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  corrected  for  deaths  in  hospital. 


Year. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

Fever 

259 
215 

368 

214 

59 
85 

46 
69 

48 
74 

45 

68 

Total 

474 

582 

144 

115 

122 

113 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  remarkable  improvement  in  the  health  of  the  inhabitants 
which  occurred  in  1902,  immediately  after  the  antimalarial  works  had  been  completed, 
has  been  well  maintained. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  deaths  occurring  in  the  district  of  Klang, 
excluding  the  town  of  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham.  (Population  14,000  in  1901, 
since  largely  increased.) 

Deaths  in  Klang  district,  excluding  Klang  town  and  Port  Swettenham. 


Year. 

1900. 

1901.    j 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

Fever •. 

173 
133 

266 

150  ! 

227 
176 

230 

198 

286 
204 

351 
271 

Total 

306 

416 

403 

428 

490 

622 

These  figures  are  especially  valuable  as  a  proof  that  the  marked  improvement  in 
the  health  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  of  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  is  due  to  the 
antimalarial  measures  carried  out,  and  not  to  a  general  improvement  in  the  health  of 
the  district. 


EXAMPLES   OF   MOSQUITO   EXTERMINATIVE    MEASURES. 


91 


In  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  we  have  368  deaths  due  to  fever  in  1901,  and  45  only 
in  1905;  whereas  in  the  rest  of  the  district,  which  has  not  been  dealt  with  by  any 
special  antimalarial  works,  we  have  266  deaths  due  to  fever  in  1901  and  351  in  1905. 

It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  Klang  is  a  large  planting  district  about  380  square 
miles  in  extent,  that  it  is  mainly  low-lying  flat  land,  utilized  for  the  cultivation  of 
rubber,  and  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  protect  the  scattered  population 
from  malaria  by  drainage  and  filling  in  swamps.  A  great  deal  is  now  being  done  on 
most  of  the  estates  by  regular  administration  of  quinine,  and  also  by  protection  from 
mosquitoes. 

Malaria  in  children  as  evidenced  by  examination  of  blood. — No  better  indication  of  the 
presence  or  absence  of  malaria  in  any  given  district  can  be  obtained  than  by  a  systematic 
examination  of  the  blood  of  children. 

The  following  details  of  the  results  of  examinations  carried  out  by  Dr.  Watson  in 
1904  and  1905  are  of  considerable  interest: 

Results  of  examination  of  blood  of  children  in  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  (specially 

drained  areas). 


November  and  December,  1904. 

November  and  December,  1905. 

Number 
examined. 

Infected. 

Percentage 
infected. 

Number 
examined. 

Infected. 

Percentage 
infected. 

173 

87 

1 

0.57 
1.14 

119 

76 

1 
1 

0.84 

.00 

Total  .  . 

260 

2                    -76 

195                      9. 

.51 

Results  of  blood  examinations  in  other  parts  of  district  not  especially  drained. 


November  and  December,  1904. 

November  and  December,  1905. 

Number 
examined. 

Infected,   hx^ 

Number 
examined. 

Infected. 

Percentage 
infected. 

298 

101 

33.89 

247 

59 

23.8 

Improvement  in  health  of  government  employees. — The  remarkable  way  in  which  the 
health  of  the  government  employees  residing  at  Klang  and  Port  Swettenham  has  been 
affected  is  well  shown  by  the  following  figures.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  in  1901 
the  number  of  persons  residing  at  Port  Swettenham,  employed  by  the  Government, 
was  176,  and  in  1904,  281. 

Table  showing  number  of  sick  certificates  and  number  of  days'  leave  granted  on  account  of 

malaria. 


1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

236 
1,026 

40 
198 

23 
73 

14 

71 

4 

30 

The  conclusions  to  be  arrived  at  from  the  figures  given  in  this  report  are  very 
evident : 

(1)  Measures  taken  systematically  to  destroy  the  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes  in 
the  towns,  the  inhabitants  of  which  suffered  terribly  from  malaria,  were  followed 
almost  immediately  by  a  general  improvement  in  health  and  decrease  in  death  rate. 


92         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

(2)  That  this  was  due  directly  to  the  works  carried  out,  and  not  to  a  general  dying 
out  of  malaria  in  the  district,  is  clearly  shown  by  figures  pointing  out  that  while 
malaria  has  practically  ceased  to  exist  in  the  areas  treated,  it  has  actually  increased 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  other  parts  of  the  district  where  antimalarial  measures  have 
not  been  undertaken. 

The  fact  that  the  statistics  for  1905  are  even  more  favorable  than  those  for  1902  is 
very  strong  evidence  in  favor  of  the  permanent  nature  of  the  improvement  carried  out. 

If,  as  it  is  hoped,  malaria  has  been  permanently  stamped  out  from  Klang  and  Port 
Swettenham  by  works  undertaken  in  1901,  our  experience  in  the  Malay  States  should 
be  of  value  to  those  responsible  for  the  health  of  communities  similarly  situated  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  world . 

THE  \>  ORK   IN  HABANA   DURING   THE  AMERICAN   OCCUPATION,  1901-2. 

One  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  clean,  efficient  antimosquito 
work  is  that  done  by  the  American  troops  in  Habana  at  the  close  of 
the  Spanish  war,  under  the  direction  of  the  Army  Medical  Corps 
and  under  the  especial  direction  of  Col.  W.  C.  Gorgas,  U.  S.  Army. 
In  the  statements  which  follow,  Colonel  Gorgas' s  published  writings 
have  been  freely  used. 

Yellow  fever  had  been  endemic  in  Habana  for  more  than  150 
years,  and  Habana  was  the  source  of  infection  for  the  rest  of  Cuba. 
Other  towns  in  Cuba  could  have  rid  themselves  of  the  disease  if  they 
had  not  been  constantly  reinfected  from  Habana.  By  ordinary 
sanitary  measures  of  cleanliness,  improved  drainage,  and  similar 
means,  the  death  rate  of  the  city  was  improved  from  1898  to  1902 
from  100  per  thousand  to  22  per  thousand,  but  these  measures  had 
no  effect  upon  yellow  fever,  this  disease  increasing  as  the  nonimmune 
population  increased,  and  in  1900  in  fact  there  was  a  severe  epidemic. 

Aedes  calopus  was  established  as  the  carrier  of  the  fever  early  in 
1901,  and  then  antimosquito  measures  were  immediately  begun. 
Against  adult  mosquitos  no  general  measures  were  attempted, 
although  screening  and  fumigation  were  carried  out  in  quarters 
occupied  by  yellow  fever  patients  or  that  had  been  occupied  by  yellow 
fever  patients.  It  was  found  that  calopus  bred  principally  in  the 
rain-water  collections  in  the  city  itself;  that  Culex  quinquefasciatus 
bred  everywhere,  and  that  Anopheles  argyritarsis  bred  principally  in 
the  suburbs  in  pools  and  puddles  well  protected  with  grass.  Two 
mosquito  brigades  were  started — one  to  take  care  of  calopus  and  the 
other  Anopheles. 

The  work  of  the  so-called  "Stegomyia  brigade"  was  confined  to 
the  built-up  portions  of  the  city.  The  city  was  divided  into  about 
thirty  districts,  and  to  each  district  an  inspector  and  two  laborers 
were  assigned,  each  district  containing  about  a  thousand  houses. 
The  mayor  of  Habana  issued  an  order  requiring  all  collections  of 
water  to  be  so  covered  that  mosquitoes  could  not  have  access,  a  fine 
being  imposed  in  cases  where  the  order  was  not  obeyed.  The  water 
supplied  Habana  was  very  hard,  and  it  was  customary  for  every 


EXAMPLES   OF   MOSQUITO   EXTERMINATIVE    MEASURES.  93 

family  to  collect  rain  water  in  barrels.  As  the  majority  of  the 
people  in  the  large  tenement  houses  were  poor,  and  as  each  family 
had  a  rain  barrel,  the  health  department  covered  these  barrels  at 
public  expense,  leaving  a  small  screen  opening  through  which  the 
water  could  run  and  placing  a  spigot  at  the  bottom  through  which 
it  could  be  drawn.  Every  house  in  Habana,  on  the  average,  has  a 
cesspool,  the  liquid  contents  generally  seeping  into  the  soil.  The 
inspector  on  each  visit  had  from  4  to  6  ounces  of  petroleum  poured 
into  the  cesspool,  and  where  this  was  not  accessible  it  was  poured 
into  all  closets  connected  with  the  cesspool;  all  receptacles  containing 
fresh  water  that  did  not  comply  with  the  law  were  emptied,  and, 
on  a  second  offense,  destroyed.  If  the  owner  was  an  old  offender, 
he  was  prosecuted  under  the  law  and  fined. 

As  a  result  of  this  work  of  the  so-called  "Stegomyia  brigade/' 
whereas  in  January,  1901,  there  were  26,000  fresh-water  receptacles 
containing  mosquito  larvae,  in  January,  1902,  there  were  less  than 
400  such  receptacles  containing  larva?;  mosquitoes  had  rapidly 
decreased,  and  were  entirely  absent  in  many  parts  of  the  city.  The 
result  of  this  work,  thoroughly  done,  was  to  wipe  out  yellow  fever 
in  Habana,  and  there  has  not  been  a  certain  endemic  case  since. 

The  " Anopheles  brigade"  was  organized  for  work  along  the  small 
streams,  irrigated  gardens,  and  similar  places  in  the  suburbs,  and 
numbered  from  50  to  300  men.  No  extensive  drainage,  such  as 
would  require  engineering  skill,  was  attempted,  and  the  natural 
streams  and  gutters  were  simply  cleared  of  obstructions  and  grass, 
while  superficial  ditches  were  made  through  the  irrigated  meadows. 
Among  the  suburban  truck  gardens  Anopheles  bred  everywhere  in 
the  little  puddles  of  water,  cow  tracks,  horse  tracks,  and  similar 
depressions  in  grassy  ground.  Little  or  no  oil  was  used  by  the 
Anopheles  brigade,  since  it  was  found  in  practice  a  simple  matter 
to  drain  these  places.  At  the  end  of  the  year  it  was  very  difficult 
to  find  water  containing  mosquito  larvae  anywhere  in  the  suburbs, 
and  the  effect  upon  the  malarial  statistics  was  striking.  In  1900, 
the  year  before  the  beginning  of  the  mosquito  work,  there  were  325 
deaths  from  malaria;  in  1901,  the  first  year  of  mosquito  work,  151 
deaths;  in  1902,  the  second  year  of  mosquito  work,  77  deaths. 
Since  1902  there  has  been  a  gradual,  though  slower  decrease,  as 
follows:   1903,  51;  1904,  44;  1905,  32;   1906,26;  1907,  23. 

WORK    AT    THE    ISTHMUS    OF    PANAMA. 

The  United  States  Government  has  very  properly  used  the  services 
of  Colonel  Gorgas,  who  was  in  charge  of  the  eminently  successful 
work  at  Habana,  by  appointing  him  chief  sanitary  officer  of  the 
Canal  Zone  during  the  digging  of  the  canal.  In  1904  active  work 
was  begun,  and  Colonel  Gorgas  was  fortunate  in  having  the  services 


94  PREVENTIVE   AJ9TD  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

of  Mr.  Le  Prince,  who  had  been  chief  of  his  'mosquito  briga 
in  Habana.  and  therefore  was  perfectly  familiar  with  antimosquito 
methods.  In  Panama,  as  in  Habana,  the  population  had  depended 
principally  upon  rain  water  for  domestic  purposes,  bo  that  every 
house  had  cisterns,  water  barrels,  and  such  receptacles  for  catching 
and  storing  rain  water.  The  city  was  divided  up  into  small  dis- 
tricts with  an  inspector  in  charge  of  each  district.  This  inspector 
was  required  to  cover  his  territory  at  least  twice  a  week  and  to 
make  a  report  upon  each  building  with  regard  to  its  condition  as  to 
breeding  places  of  mosquitoes.  All  the  cistern^,  water  barrels,  and 
other  water  receptacles  in  Panama  were  covered  as  in  Habana.  and 
in  the  water  barrels  spigots  were  inserted  so  that  the  covers  would 
not  have  to  be  taken  off.  Upon  first  inspection,  in  March,  4.000 
breeding  places  were  reported.  At  the  end  of  October  less  than 
400  containing  larvae  were  recorded.  This  gives  one  a  fair  idea  of 
the  consequent  rapid  decrease  in  the  number  of  mosquitoes  in  the 
city.  These  operations  were  directed  primarily  against  the  yellow- 
fever  mosquito,  and  incidentally  against  the  other  common  species 
that  inhabit  rain-water  barrels.  Against  the  Anopheles  in  the 
suburbs  the  same  kind  of  work  was  done  which  was  done  in  Habana, 
with  exceptionally  good  results. 

The  same  operations  were  carried  on  in  the  villages  between 
Panama  and  Colon.  There  are  some  twenty  of  these  villages,  run- 
ning from  500  to  3.000  inhabitants  each.  Xot  a  single  instance 
of  failure  has  occurred  in  the  disinfection  of  these  small  towns. 
and  the  result  of  the  whole  work  has  been  the  apparent  elimination 
of  yellow  fever  and  the  very  great  reduction  of  malarial  fever. 
The  remarkable  character  of  these  results  can  only  be  judged  accu- 
rately by  comparative  methods.  It  is  well  known  that  during  the 
French  occupation  there  was  an  enormous  mortality  among  the 
European  employees,  and  this  was  a  vital  factor  in  the  failure  of 
the  work.  Exact  losses  can  not  be  estimated,  since  the  work  was 
done  under  17  different  contractors.  These  contractors  were 
charged  SI  a  day  for  every  sick  man  to  be  taken  care  of  in  the 
hospital  of  the  company.  Therefore  it  often  happened  that  when  a 
man  became  sick  his  employer  discharged  him.  so  that  he  would 
not  have  to  bear  the  expense  of  hospital  charges.  There  was  no 
police  patrol  of  the  territory,  and  many  of  these  men  died  along  the 
line.  Colonel  Gorgas  has  stated  that  the  English  consul,  who  was 
at  the  Isthmus  during  the  period  of  the  French  construction,  is  in- 
clined to  think  that  more  deaths  of  employees  occurred  out  of  the 
hospital  than  in  it.  A  great  many  were  found  to  have  died  along 
the  roadside  while  endeavoring  to  find  their  way  to  the  city  of 
Panama.  The  old  superintendent  of  the  French  hospital  states 
that   one  day   3  of   the  medical   staff   died  from   yellow  fever,  and 


EXAMPLES   OF   MOSQUITO   EXTERMINATIVE    MEASURES.  95 

in  the  same  month  9  of  the  medical  staff.  Thirty-six  Roman 
Catholic  sisters  were  brought  over  as  female  nurses,  and  24  died  of 
yellow  fever.  On  one  vessel  18  young  French  engineers  came  over, 
and  in  a  month  after  their  arrival  all  but  one  died.  Now  that  the 
mosquito  relation  is  well  understood,  it  was  found  during  the  first 
two  years  under  Doctor  Gorgas  that  although  there  were  constantly 
one  or  more  yellow-fever  cases  in  the  hospital,  and  although  the  nurses 
and  doctors  were  all  nonimmune,  not  a  single  case  of  yellow  fever 
was  contracted  in  that  way.  The  nurses  never  seemed  to  consider 
that  they  were  running  any  risk  in  attending  yellow-fever  cases 
night  and  day  in  screened  wards,  and  the  wives  and  families  of 
officers  connected  with  the  hospital  lived  about  the  grounds,  knowing 
that  yellow  fever  was  constantly  being  brought  into  the  grounds 
and  treated  in  near-by  buildings.  Americans,  sick  from  any  cause, 
had  no  fear  of  being  treated  in  the  bed  immediately  adjoining  that 
of  a  yellow-fever  patient.  Colonel  Gorgas  and  Doctor  Carter  lived 
in  the  old  ward  used  by  the  French  for  their  officers,  and  Colonel 
Gorgas  thinks  it  safe  to  say  that  more  men  had  died  from  yellow 
fever  in  that  building  than  in  any  other  building  of  the  same  capacity 
at  present  standing.  He  and  Doctor  Carter  had  their  wives  and 
children  with  them,  which  would  formerly  have  been  considered 
the  height  of  recklessness;  but  they  looked  upon  themselves,  under 
the  now  recognized  precautions,  as  safe  almost  as  they  would  have 
been  in  Philadelphia. 

Xo  figures  of  actual  cost  of  the  antimosquito  work  either  in  Habana 
or  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  are  accessible  to  the  writer,  but  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  it  was  not  exorbitant  and  that  it  was  not  beyond 
the  means  of  any  well-to-do  community  in  tropical  regions. 

WORK    IN    RIO    DE    JANEIRO. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  this  character  was  that  of 
freeing  Rio  de  Janeiro  from  its  reputation  as  the  great  yellow  fever 
center.  The  difficulties  were  very  great,  and  the  amount  of  money 
required  for  efficient  work  was  enormous.  Rio  de  Janeiro  has  a 
population  of  more  than  800,000  people;  it  extends  over  an  area  of 
430  square  miles;  it  is  very  irregular  in  its  topography,  varying  in 
altitude  from  1  to  460  meters  (3  feet  to  1,509  feet)  above  the  sea 
level;  it  has  82,396  houses,  and,  as  in  all  great  centers  of  population, 
the  inhabitants  of  very  many  of  the  houses,  if  not  resisting  the 
efforts  of  the  sanitary  authorities,  surely  did  not  facilitate  them. 
The  effort  was  begun  in  April,  1903,  under  the  direction  of  the  public- 
health  service,  but  the  organization  effected  was  of  a  temporary 
character  and  needed  the  passage  of  new  laws  by  congress,  which 
was  effected  in  January,   1904,  and  resulted  in  the  reorganization 


96         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

of  the  hygienic  service  of  Brazil  and  created  a  service  for  the  stamp- 
ing out  of  yellow  fever.  One  million  six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
dollars  was  appropriated  annually  for  this  work.  The  service  estab- 
lished included  1  medical  inspector,  10  sanitary  inspectors  (physi- 
cians), 1  administrator,  1  customs  inspector,  1  accountant,  70  medical 
students,  9  subchiefs,  200  overseers,  18  guards  of  the  first  class,  18 
guards  of  the  second  class,  and  1,000  workmen;  and  in  addition  to 
this  personnel,  the  assistance  of  the  public-health  service  corps  of 
inspectors  was  called  upon.  The  city  was  divided  into  zones,  ac- 
cording to  the  density  of  the  population,  and  the  work  was  divided 
into  two  sections:  (1)  Isolation  and  sanitation;  (2)  the  policing  of  the 
infected  districts.  Under  the  first  section,  yellow-fever  patients 
were  removed  to  the  pesthouse,  residents  were  isolated,  and  houses 
were  disinfected.  Under  the  second,  the  sanitary  police  force 
visited  every  building  in  the  city,  destroyed  the  early  stages  of  mos- 
quitoes, and  screened  standing  water  where  possible.  One  force 
worked  in  buildings,  and  another  in  vacant  lots,  streams,  marshy 
lands,  etc.  The  following  paragraphs  relative  to  this  work  are 
quoted  from  an  address  made  before  the  Latin-American  Medical 
and  Sanitary  Congress,  held  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  August  1  to  10,  1909, 
by  Dr.  Oswaldo  Cruz : 

Yellow-fever  cases  were  made  known  to  the  sanitary  inspectors  by  the  reports 
of  medical  assistants,  of  the  head  of  the  family  in  which  a  case  occurred,  or  by  any 
one  to  whom  the  facts  of  the  case  were  known,  in  accordance  with  the  requirements 
of  the  law.  The  sanitary  service  being  advised,  a  competent  group  of  inspectors  and 
authorities  were  at  once  dispatched  to  the  locality,  having  with  them  a  physician. 
The  latter  ascertained  if  the  case  was  one  for  isolation  treatment  (whether  under  or 
over  four  days  after  the  onset  of  the  disease),  and  if  the  case  required  isolation  the 
same  was  carried  out  either  in  the  dwelling  house  or  in  the  hospital,  hospital  treatment 
being  resorted  to  only  when  the  dwelling  was  unsuited  to  isolation  treatment  or 
when  the  patient  wished  it.  In  such  cases  the  patient  was  taken  to  hospital  in  a 
vehicle  closed  against  the  entrance  of  mosquitoes,  and  the  house  was  disinfected  in 
accordance  with  the  system  below  outlined.  In  the  case  of  isolation  in  the  home 
the  physician  chose  a  roomy  quarter  of  the  house  with  door  opening  into  another 
secluded  part  of  the  house  and  with  windows.  If  there  were  more  than  one  door, 
the  others  were  temporarily  closed.  The  patient  was  kept  under  a  netting  enveloping 
the  bed  upon  which  he  lay  during  the  time  permanent  quarters  were  being  arranged. 
The  doors  and  windows  of  the  room  to  be  isolated  and  of  the  rest  of  the  house  as  well 
were  sealed  to  prevent  the  exit  of  mosquitoes  existing  there,  the  windows  of  the 
isolated  room  being  fitted  with  wire  screens  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  interfere  with 
ventilation,  all  other  openings  to  the  outside  or  to  other  parts  of  the  house  being 
sealed  with  cloth  or  paper.  The  only  door  to  be  used  in  the  use  of  the  room  must  be 
specially  fitted  with  a  double  door  drum,  provided  with  an  arrangement  which  does 
not  permit  of  both  doors  being  opened  at  the  same  time.  This  apparatus  prevents 
the  entrance  and  exit  of  mosquitoes,  and  after  the  room  is  thus  prepared  the  door 
and  windows  are  closed  and  camomile  is  burned  in  the  room  3  to  4  hours  in  the  pro- 
portion of  10  grams  per  cubic  meter  of  space.  The  room  is  then  well  ventilated  and 
is  ready  to  receive  the  patient.  The  rest  of  the  house  is  well  calked  and  isolated 
from  the  room  in  which  the  patient  is  placed,  and  disinfected  with  sulphur  gas,  as 
below  indicated.     During  this  operation  a  sanitary  inspector  remains  in  the  room 


EXAMPLES  OF   MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATIVE   MEASURES.  97 

with  the  patient  and  stops  the  entrance  of  any  gas  which  may  possibly  find  its  way 
through  some  overlooked  crevice.  During  the  preparation  for  disinfection  the  sani- 
tary authorities  make  a  thorough  inspection  and  destroy  any  mosquito  larva  they 
find,  pick  up  or  destroy  any  vessels  lying  about  which  might  serve  as  a  receptacle 
for  mosquito-breeding  water,  and  close  water  boxes  against  the  same  danger.  The 
patient  remains  in  isolation  for  seven  days,  after  which  isolation  may  terminate,  if  the 
family  so  wishes.  The  infected  district  is  then  treated  as  above  indicated;  that  is,  by 
disinfection,  sanitary  policing,  and  medical  supervision.  Disinfection  is  carried 
on  in  two  ways,  one  force  working  from  the  center  toward  the  outer  limits  of  the 
district  and  the  other  from  the  boundaries  of  the  district  inward.  The  area  of 
infection  being  determined  over  as  large  an  area  as  possible,  these  two  sections  sepa- 
rate, one  of  which  begins  immediately  with  the  house  in  which  the  case  of  yellow 
fever  occurred,  the  other  beginning  at  those  houses  which  might  possibly  have  been 
infected  at  the  greatest  possible  distance  from  the  case  in  isolation.  The  purpose 
of  such  a  system  was  to  destroy  all  mosquitoes  which  might  have  carried  infection 
within  the  district. 

While  the  disinfecting  force  is  thus  at  work  the  police  division,  under  the  direction 
of  a  physician  and  of  students  who  direct  the  different  sections,  operates  throughout  the 
infected  district,  making  every  effort  to  destroy  all  mosquito  larva?  and  to  prevent  the 
possible  breeding  of  mosquitoes  outside  as  well  as  inside  the  house.  Where  larvae  are 
likely  to  exist  in  stagnant  water  or  refuse  of  any  sort,  petroleum  mixed  with  creoline, 
lysol,  or  similar  products  is  thrown  over  the  water  or  refuse  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
kill  the  larvae  instantly.  Where  it  is  impossible  to  use  petroleum,  as  in  the  case  of 
tanks  and  boxes  for  household  use,  a  small  fish,  the  "barrigudo"  or  Girardinus  caudi- 
maculatus,  is  placed  in  large  numbers  in  the  water.  This  fish  destroys  the  larvae  of 
mosquitoes  most  voraciously.  Larvae  in  the  drains  are  destroyed  by  the  use  of  "Clay- 
ton gas, ' '  which  is  pumped  into  the  sewer,  which  has  been  previously  divided  into  com- 
partments. Simultaneously  with  the  disinfection  the  sanitary  inspectors  make  daily 
inspection  of  the  suspected  district,  examining  every  inhabitant  supposed  not  to  be 
immune — that  is,  children  under  5,  and  all  foreigners  of  less  than  5  years'  residence  in 
Rio.  These  are  subjected  to  the  closest  vigilance,  being  placed  in  isolation  at  the 
least  tendency  to  rising  temperature.  Reports  are  made  in  writing,  those  to  whom  this 
duty  falls  being  required  to  fill  out  daily  a  bulletin  sent  out  by  the  medical  inspector 
to  the  chief  of  each  district.  In  this  report  must  be  given  the  record  of  any  who  work 
outside  the  district  or  who  for  any  reason  absent  themselves  therefrom,  a  record  of 
their  condition  being  also  kept  by  the  physician  in  the  district  in  which  they  work  or 
are  temporarily  resident.  When  any  inhabitant  absents  himself  from  the  district  the 
record  must  show  his  address,  where  he  will  be  subjected  to  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities  there.  If  the  person  under  vigilance  evades  the  attention  of  the  physi- 
cian and  withdraws  without  giving  notice,  the  owner  of  the  house  in  which  he  lived 
is  fined,  he  himself  is  apprehended  by  the  sanitary  police,  fined,  and  subjected  to 
renewed  vigilance. 

The  vigilance  in  each  district  extends  over  a  period  of  one  month  after  the  appear- 
ance of  the  last  case.  To  give  an  idea  of  this  service  we  will  note  the  figures  covering 
the  prophylactic  campaign  in  the  infected  district  about  the  cotton  factory,  "Fabrica 
das  Chitas,"  in  1906.  The  inspection  was  carried  out  by  18  doctors,  who  examined 
daily  all  suspected  persons — in  all,  7,966  persons,  of  whom  2,989  were  not  immune. 
Sixty  cases  were  reported,  of  which  only  19  proved  to  be  yellow  fever,  and  the  district 
was  declared  entirely  freed  of  infection  after  six  months.  With  the  combination  of  the 
three  systems  there  is  no  doubt  about  cleaning  up  effectively  any  district  in  which  yel- 
low fever  may  appear.  In  normal  conditions  the  police  service  is  carried  out  with 
equal  painstaking,  especially  in  the  districts  where  infection  last  appeared.  When, 
after  some  time,  there  seems  no  longer  to  be  danger  of  new  infection,  the  inspectors 
allow  water  to  stand  in  several  marked  spots  most  favorable  to  mosquito  breeding. 
37713— Bull.  88—10 7 


98         PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 


These  pools  are  then  carefully  watched,  and  examined  at  frequent  intervals.  This  is 
a  sure  way  to  indicate  the  presence  of  the  mosquito,  and  is  a  trap  for  those  about  to 
spawn.  They  are  thus  most  easily  destroyed.  '  In  many  zones  of  the  city  these  traps 
revealed  the  presence  of  no  mosquitoes  whatever. 

The  actual  results  which  followed  this  admirable  work  are  shown  by 
a  table  indicating  the  death  rate  from  yellow  fever  in  Rio  from  1872 
to  date,  which  indicates  that  perfect  success  has  been  reached. 

Mortality  from  yellow  fever  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  from  1872  to  August,  1909. 


Year. 

Deaths. 

Year. 

Deaths. 

1872                                   

102 
3,659 

829 
1.292 
3,476 

282 
1.176 

974 
1,625  ! 

257  ! 
89 
1.608 

863 

445 
1,449 

137 

747 
2,156 

m 

1891 

4,456 

1873                        

1892 

4,312 

1874                         

1893 

825 

1875                               

1894 

4,852 
818 

1876                                    

1895 

1877                      

1896 

2,929 

1878                         

1897 

159 

1879                               

1898 

1,078 

1880              

1899 

731 

1881                      

1900 

344 

1882                         

1901 

2,299 
984 

1883                               

1902 

1884              

1903 

584 

1885                    

1904 

48 

1886                           

1905 

289 

1887  

1906 

42 

1888                 

1907 

39 

1889                        

1908 

4 

1890                        

1909 

0 

WORK    IN    ALGERIA. 

In  1902  an  antimalarial  campaign  was  begun  in  Algeria  under  the 
auspices  and  at  the  expense  of  the  Pasteur  Institute  of  Paris.  The 
work  was  begun  in  a  small  way,  and  the  service  was  afterwards  ex- 
tended and  supported  by  the  Algerian  government  and  is  still  being 
carried  on.  Dr.  Edmond  Sergent  was  assigned  to  the  work,  and  in 
1903  published  an  account  of  the  early  demonstrations.  The  inves- 
tigators propounded  to  themselves  the  following  question:  Is  it  pos- 
sible, under  the  practical  conditions  existing  in  Algeria,  to  defend  a 
group  of  Europeans  from  malaria  ?  And  they  decided  to  use  no  pro- 
phylactic measures  whatever  except  the  destruction  of  Anopheles. 
The  management  of  the  East  Algerian  Railroad  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  service  one  of  the  stations  of  that  line.  This  station,  which  was 
called  Alma,  was  a  hotbed  of  malaria.  Nine  agents  had  been  stationed 
there  between  the  1st  of  July,  1894,  and  the  1st  of  December,  1901. 
All  of  them  were  seriously  ill  with  malaria,  and  the  first  eight  left  their 
positions  on  account  of  malarial  fever  on  the  advice  of  their  physi- 
cians. The  ninth  was  the  man  in  charge  at  the  time,  who  was  very 
thoroughly  infected.  The  families  of  these  agents,  concerning  which 
there  were  no  statistics,  were  all  and  always  feverish,  according  to  the 
best  information.  It  seems  that  there  did  not  exist  a  person  who  had 
ever  lived  in  this  station  a  single  summer  without  contracting  malaria. 


EXAMPLES  OF   MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATING   MEASURES.  99 

At  the  time  when  the  work  began,  June  26, 1902,  there  were  13  people 
living  in  the  station;  among  them  9  had  been  there  a  year  or  more 
and  were  malarious ;  4  had  arrived  during  the  winter  and  had  never 
had  any  fever.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  station  there  were  two 
families,  one  of  Arabs  and  one  of  French.  All  members  of  these  two 
families  were  malarious  and  refused  to  be  protected,  and  therefore 
constituted  a  constant  source  of  infection  for  the  Anopheles.  It  was 
the  same  way  with  the  travelers  who  came  to  the  station  to  wait  for 
trains  leaving  in  the  evening  or  at  night.  Most  of  them  were  Arabs 
coming  from  near-by  places  notoriously  unhealthy.  The  conditions 
of  the  problem  were  then  severe.  It  was  necessary  to  protect  from 
the  bite  of  infected  Anopheles  4  persons  not  previously  exposed 
and  9  others  already  malarious,  the  latter  from  reinfection.  The 
measures  undertaken  were  to  protect  this  group  of  people  from  adult 
Anopheles  and  to  destroy  the  Anopheles  larvse.  This  was  done  in  the 
usual  way.  The  openings  to  the  buildings  were  screened — doors,  win- 
dows, and  chimney.  All  breeding  places  were  searched  for  and  found 
and  were  treated  with  kerosene.  On  leaving  the  station  at  night  veils 
and  gloves  were  used;  but  in  spite  of  this  watchfulness  it  was  not  cer- 
tain that  all  of  the  house  people  invariably  observed  this  precaution. 
The  results  were  excellent.  The  numbers  of  the  mosquitoes  were 
greatly  reduced  by  the  work  against  the  early  stages;  the  building  was 
almost  entirely  protected,  so  much  so  that  but  9  Anopheles  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  entrance.  At  the  end  of  the  season  not  one  of  the 
4  new  people  had  shown  the  slightest  symptoms  of  malaria,  a  con- 
dition which  it  is  safe  to  say  had  not  occurred  before  in  that  locality, 
and  the  others,  although  having  some  fever,  showed  no  indication  of 
reinfection. 

This  was  only  an  initial  experiment  to  prove  what  could  be  done, 
and  the  results  were  placed  before  the  governor-general  of  Algeria  and 
the  members  of  congress  as  well  as  the  departmental  and  communal 
authorities.  The  expenses  incurred  amounted  to  $58.83.  The  gov- 
ernmental efforts  since  that  time  seem  to  have  been  very  consider- 
able. In  1904  malaria  was  pandemic  in  Algeria,  but  by  increased 
knowledge  and  increased  efforts  the  report  for  1908  shows  that  in  that 
year  the  situation  was  very  much  better  and  not  to  be  compared  with 
that  of  1904.  The  effort  takes  the  form  of  conducting  demonstra- 
tions in  order  to  give  lessons  to  the  people  and  to  widen  each  year 
the  territory  covered,  and  to  organize  antimalarial  campaigns  in 
different  malarial  localities  by  the  physicians,  the  engineers,  etc., 
stationed  in  those  localities.  Propagandic  work  of  all  kinds  is  going 
on,  including  placards  in  the  railway  carriages  and  elsewhere  and 
teaching  antimalarial  measures  in  all  the  schools.  The  last  report 
published — that  giving  an  account  of  the  operations  for  1908 — indi- 
cates an  awakening  of  the  country  that  can  not  fail  to  be  productive 
of  great  good. 


100      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

WORK    IN    ISMAILIA. 

Another  striking  example  of  excellent  work  of  this  kind  is  found  in 
the  report,  published  in  1906,  on  the  suppression  of  malaria  in 
Ismailia,  issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du 
Canal  Maritime  de  Suez.  Ismailia  is  now  a  town  of  8,000  inhabitants. 
It  was  founded  by  De  Lesseps  in  April,  1862,  on  the  borders  of  Lake 
Timsah,  which  the  Suez  Canal  crosses  at  mid-distance  between  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean.  Malarial  fever  made  its  appearance 
in  very  severe  form  in  September,  1877,  although  the  city  had  up  to 
that  time  been  very  healthy,  and  increased  so  that  since  1886  almost 
all  of  the  inhabitants  have  suffered  from  the  fever.  In  1901  an 
attempt  to  control  the' disease  was  made  on  the  mosquito  basis,  and 
this  attempt  rapidly  and  completely  succeeded,  and  after  two  years  of 
work  all  traces  of  malaria  disappeared  from  the  city.  The  work  was 
directed  not  only  against  Anopheles  mosquitoes,  but  against  other 
culicids,  and  comprised  the  drainage  of  a  large  swamp  and  the  other 
usual  measures.  The  initial  expense  amounted  to  $9,650  and  the 
annual  expenses  since  have  amounted  to  about  $3,531.90. 

The  results  may  be  summarized  about  as  follows:  Since  the  begin- 
ning of  1903  the  ordinary  mosquitoes  have  disappeared  from  Ismailia. 
Since  the  autumn  of  1903  not  a  single  larva  of  Anopheles  has  been 
found  in  the  protected  zone,  which  extends  to  the  west  for  a  distance 
of  3,281  feet  from  the  first  houses  in  the  Arabian  quarter  and  to  the 
east  for  a  distance  of  5,906  feet  from  the  first  houses  in  the  European 
quarter.  After  1902  malarial  fever  obviously  began  to  decrease,  and 
since  1903  not  a  single  new  case  of  malaria  has  been  found  in  Ismailia. 

WORK    IN    VERACRUZ. 

The  president  of  the  superior  board  of  health  of  the  Republic  of 
Mexico,  Dr.  Eduardo  Liceaga,  was  one  of  the  first  to  grasp  the  im- 
portance of  the  mosquito  discoveries  of  the  American  army  board 
and  one  of  the  first  to  make  an  effort  to  put  them  into  effect.  As 
elsewhere,  he'  met  with  conservatism  and  a  certain  amount  of  dis- 
belief, but  it  was  not  long  before  he  succeeded  in  establishing  an  anti- 
mosquito  service  for  practically  all  of  the  towns  in  which  the  disease 
appeared  to  be  endemic,  and  devoted  especial  attention  to  the  larger 
seaports  most  frequently  entered  by  foreign  vessels.  In  1893  the 
disease  spread  in  an  epidemic  form  to  several  cities  of  the  Gulf  States 
of  Mexico  and  to  some  interior  cities  as  well,  such  as  in  the  States  of 
Nuevo  Leon  and  San  Luis  Potosi.  By  the  aid  of  strong  executive 
orders  on  the  part  of  President  Diaz,  the  superior  board  of  health  was 
able  to  take  action  in  all  of  the  States  except  one,  and  was  able  to 
arrest  the  epidemic.  The  plan  of  campaign  was  based  upon  the 
mosquito  doctrine,  and  the  measures  involved  the  isolation  of  patients, 
the  rigorous  disinfection  of  dwellings  by  sulphur  dioxid,  the  drainage 


EXAMPLES   OF   MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATTVE   MEASURES.        101 

of  swamps,   covering  of  drinking-water  reservoirs,   and  the  use  of 
petroleum. 

In  the  course  of  this  work  and  that  which  followed,  with  the  under- 
standing that  Veracruz  is  the  oldest  and  most  permanent  focus  of 
endemia  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  and  that  all  the  epidemics  had 
found  their  origin  in  that  place,  the  principal  attention  of  the  superior 
board  of  health  was  devoted  to  that  city.  The  town  was  divided  into 
four  districts,  each  of  which  was  placed  under  the  charge  of  an  expe- 
rienced physician,  and  each  of  these  had  first-class  sanitary  agents. 
Subordinate  to  these,  other  second-class  agents  were  appointed,  and 
a  certain  number  of  laborers  were  added.  As  a  result  of  this  effective 
organization,  Carroll,  writing  his  chapter  on  yellow  fever  for  Osier's 
Modern  Medicine,  at  the  close  of  1906,  was  able  to  make  the  following 
statement : 

In  Mexico  yellow  fever  has  been  eradicated  from  its  endemic  focus  at  Veracruz 
through  the  able  efforts  of  Eduardo  Liceaga,  the  president  of  the  superior  board  of 
health,  whose  complete  grasp  of  the  problem  and  whose  enlightened  and  energetic 
action  has  added  support  to  the  mosquito  doctrine,  and  would  have  controlled  the 
disease  absolutely  if  the  same  means  of  enforcement  were  available  in  Mexico  as  in 
Cuba  in  1901. 

The  later  developments  of  the  work  in  the  Mexican  Republic  under 
Doctor  Liceaga's  leadership  have  been  remarkable.  In  the  American 
Journal  of  Public  Hygiene,  new  series,  Volume  VI,  Xo.  1  (February, 
1910),  is  published  Doctor  Liceaga's  Annual  Report  on  Yellow  Fever 
in  the  Mexican  Republic,  from  August  16,  1908,  to  date,  a  paper  read 
before  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  at  Richmond,  Va., 
October,  1909.  The  following  paragraphs  concluding  this  report  will 
give  an  idea  of  the  excellent  results  which  have  followed  the  work  of 
the  sanitary  officials  in  Mexico: 

The  campaign  against  yellow  fever,  which  commenced  in  the  Mexican  Republic 
in  the  year  1903,  has  continued  uninterrupted  up  to  this  date,  without  even  suspending 
it  during  the  winter  months  as  is  done  in  other  countries;  that  the  war  on  the  mos- 
quitoes is  so  efficacious  that  there  are  none  left  in  Veracruz,  and,  consequently,  there 
are  no  stegomyias,  as  demonstrated  by  the  reports  rendered  by  the  physician  of  the 
Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service  of  the  United  States,  who  is  resident  in 
that  port. 

The  cases  which  have  been  observed  in  Merida  and  surrounding  villages  arise  from 
the  existence  in  that  city  of  over  thirty  thousand  water  tanks  which  could  not  be  so 
easily  and  securely  watched  as  those  of  Veracruz. 

In  the  entire  section  which  was  formerly  devastated  by  yellow  fever  we  continue 
to  canalize  the  deposits  of  standing  water  and  to  fill  up  the  hollows,  as  well  as  to 
spread  oil  on  all  those  ponds  which  cannot  be  otherwise  filled  in  or  covered. 

We  continue  to  fumigate  the  dwelling  houses,  workshops,  schools,  etc.,  in  which 
we  have  encountered  either  cases  of  yellow  fever  or  any  suspected  cases. 

We  continue  the  surveillance  over  the  passengers  who  travel  by  rail  in  any  part  of 
the  region  which  formerly  suffered  from  yellow  fever,  and  this  service  is  especially 
active  along  the  line  of  the  Tehuantepec  Railroad. 

In  the  ports  of  Coatzacoalcos,  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  Salina  Cruz,  on  the  Pacific,  it 
is  nearly  four  years  since  a  single  case  of  yellow  fever  was  observed. 


102      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 


WORK    IN    JAPAN. 


Work  in  Japan  as  early  as  1901,  under  Surgeon  Major  Tsuzuki,  con- 
firmed experimentally  the  malarial  relations  of  Anopheles,  and  later 
a  large-scale  experiment  was  carried  on  among  the  Japanese  troops 
occupying  Formosa,  which,  on  account  of  its  extent,  served  to  set  at 
rest  any  doubts  which  had  previously  existed  as  to  the  value  of  mos- 
quito protection.  Portions  of  Formosa  are  malarious,  and  the 
following  table  indicates  the  conditions  existing  among  these  troops 
from  1897  to  1900: 


Number  of 
patients. 

Number  of 
deaths. 

Ratio  of 
patients. 

Ratio  of 
deaths. 

1897 

41,825 
34,752 
29,371 
30,224 

267 
270 
284 
272 

Per  cent. 
272. 435 
249. 394 
221.  263 
222. 414 

Per  cent. 
1.739 

1898 

1.938 

1899 

2.139 

1900 

2.002 

On  the  21st  of  September,  1901,  and  extending  through  to  the 
28th  of  February,  1902,  work  was  carried  on  by  order  of  the  governor 
of  Formosa,  on  the  advice  of  Doctor  Koike,  surgeon-general,  as 
follows.  This  account  of  the  experiment  is  taken  from  an  address 
by  Dr.  K.  Tamura,  delegate  from  Japan  to  the  Eleventh  Annual 
Meeting  of  the  Military  Surgeons  of  the  United  States  Army,  June 
7,  1902: 

Half  of  the  second  company,  first  battalion  of  infantry  at  Kirun,  Formosa,  115  in 
number,  was  employed  from  the  day  of  their  landing  at  Kirun,  and  we  gave  it  the 
name  of  "protected  troops."  This  troop  was  thoroughly  provided  with  means  of 
protection  from  mosquito  bites.  They  were  confined  in  the  casern  from  half  an  hour 
before  sunset  to  half  an  hour  after  sunrise,  the  casern  having  been  specially  made  to 
prevent  mosquitoes  entering,  and  they  wore  gloves  and  coverings  of  the  head  specially 
made  for  that  purpose  when  on  service  at  night. 

The  results  of  these  new  methods  for  the  prevention  of  malaria  were  absolutely 
good.  Another  half  of  the  second  company  (called  by  us  "comparison  troop")  and 
all  the  other  companies  of  the  battalion  (called  by  us  "unprotected  troop")  had  a 
great  many  malaria  patients,  but  the  protected  troop  had  none. 

The  table  of  the  number  of  patients  is  as  follows: 


Average 
number 
of  men. 


Number  of 
patients. 


Ratio  of 
patients. 


Protected  troop. . . 
Comparison  troop. 
Unprotected  troop 


114.  49 
104. 34 
646.36 


0 
34 

285 


Per  cent. 
0 
32.59 
44.09 


The  experiment  of  Grassi  in  Italy  shows  that  5  cases  of  malaria  were  observed 
among  112  persons,  and  Celli  observed  11  cases  in  203  persons,  but  our  case  shows 
none  in  114  persons. 


EXAMPLES  OF   MOSQUITO  EXTEKMINATIVE   MEASURES.         103 

The  news  was  spread  rapidly  in  the  whole  island  and  all  the  troops  despatched  there 
became  very  cautious  regarding  the  bites  of  mosquitoes.  This  caution  itself  gave 
good  results,  and  the  number  of  patients  and  deaths  decreased  distinctly  last  year, 
compared  with  the  preceding  years: 


Number  of 
patients. 

Number  of 
deaths. 

Ratio  of 
patients. 

Ratio  of 
deaths. 

From  1897  to  1900,  average 

34,043 
22,438 

27,325 
14,500 

Per  cent. 
242. 514 
173.211 

Per  cent. 
1.947 

1901                                     

1.119 

Now  it  is  very  clear  that  the  prevention  of  malaria  is  secured  by  guarding  against 
mosquitoes,  and  we  believe  that  Formosa  will  become  a  healthy  island  within  a  few 
years. 

In  the  recent  war  between  Russia  and  Japan,  the  Japanese  gave  the 
world  an  example  of  field  sanitation  hitherto  unequaled  in  history, 
a  vivid  account  of  which  will  be  found  in  "The  Real  Triumph  of 
Japan,"  by  Dr.  Louis  Livingston  Seaman,  formerly  surgeon-major, 
United  States  Volunteers  (New  York,  1907),  from  which  the  following 
facts  are  drawn: 

Longmore's  tables,  based  on  the  records  of  the  battles  of  the  last 
two  hundred  years,  show  that  there  has  rarely  been  a  conflict  of  any 
long  duration  in  which  there  have  not  been  four  deaths  from  disease 
to  one  from  bullets.  In  the  Spanish- American  war  there  were  14 
deaths  from  disease  to  1  from  battle.  Japan  in  her  war  with  China 
in  1894  lost  3  from  disease  to  1  from  bullets;  but  from  February, 
1904,  to  May,  1905,  in  her  war  with  Russia  4  were  lost  in  battle  to  1 
only  from  disease,  the  exact  figures  being  52,946  lost  in  battle  and 
11,992  lost  from  disease,  and  the  significant  fact  must  be  added  that 
of  the  total  sick  only  3.51  per  cent  were  sick  with  infectious  diseases. 
There  were  only  1,257  cases  of  malaria  in  the  whole  army,  600,000 
strong,  in  the  eighteen  months  duration  of  the  war,  whereas  in  1894, 
in  the  war  with  China,  there  had  been  41,734  cases  of  malaria.  At 
the  outset  of  the  campaign  the  purifying  of  cities  occupied  was  begun 
and  attention  was  paid  to  mosquito  breeding-places.  One  of  the 
orders  issued  was  that  the  waste  water  of  the  barracks  should  be 
connected  with  the  town  gutters.  Incidentally  it  may  be  noted  that 
all  articles  sold  publicly  were  required  to  be  covered  to  protect  them 
from  flies.  In  the  book  of  health  instructions  issued  to  soldiers 
occurred  the  paragraph,  "Malaria  is  spread  by  mosquitoes;  therefore 
protect  yourself  from  them  as  much  as  possible."  The  soldiers  had 
their  camp  kettles  with  them,  they  were  furnished  with  water  boilers, 
and  all  water  had  to  be  boiled  before  being  drunk.  They  were  fur- 
nished with  mosquito  bars,  and  every  man  was  enveloped  in  a  bar 
during  the  mosquito  season.  The  result  of  1,257  cases  of  malaria  out 
of  an  army  600,000  strong  must  be  contrasted  with  a  telegram  sent 
from  General  Shafter  at  Santiago  on  August  8  during  the  Spanish- 


104      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

American  war,  which  read  "At  least  75  per  cent  of  the  command  has 
been  down  with  malarial  fever,  from  which  they  recover  very  slowly 
*  *  *."  It  should  be  noted  that  Major  Seaman  was  disappointed 
not  to  find  mosquito  nettings  in  the  main  hospital  in  Tokio  and  that 
he  states  that  this  hospital  was  inferior  in  this  and  certain  other 
respects  to  the  second  and  third  reserve  hospitals  in  Manila.  He 
states  that  at  some  of  the  hospitals  netting  was  added  as  the  mosquito 
season  approched,  but  it  is  only  fair  to  infer  that  at  this  main  hospital 
the  Japanese  surgeons  knew  what  they  were  about  and  were  certain 
that  the  absence  of  the  mosquito  bars  involved  no  danger  to  the 
patients. 

AXTIMOSQUITO    WORK    IX    OTHER    PARTS    OF   THE    WORLD. 

Nothing  has  been  said  in  this  bulletin  about  the  admirable  work 
which  had  been  carried  on  in  Italy.  Taking  a  prominent  part  in  the 
demonstration  of  the  conveyance  of  malaria  by  Anopheles,  the 
Italian  investigators  were  practically  the  first  to  begin  active  anti- 
mosquito  work.  Their  results  were  so  striking  that  they  received 
the  attention  of  the  entire  civilized  world,  many  accounts  having 
been  published  in  newspapers  and  magazines  and  in  more  permanent 
form.  The  whole  world  may,  in  fact,  be  said  to  be  familiar  with  this 
work,  which  will  be,  however,  more  extensively  mentioned  in  a 
bulletin  on  malaria  and  the  malaria  mosquitoes  which  it  is  hoped  to 
publish  later  in  the  year. 

Active  and  well-organized  antimalarial  work  is  being  carried  on 
in  many  places  in  the  Tropics,  and  an  effort  has  been  made  to  estab- 
lish an  antimalarial  league  in  Greece  which  has  the  support  of  wealthy 
people  and  of  the  nobility  of  several  countries,  but  in  practically 
none  of  the  well-settled  countries  in  temperate  regions  has  any  work 
of  importance  been  done,  even  in  regions  whose  development  is  dis- 
tinctly held  in  check  by  this  disease.  The  government  of  India  has 
never  been  able  to  carry  out  broad  concerted  measures  of  any  great 
importance,  although  most  important  investigations  have  been  car- 
ried on  in  that  country.  It  was  recently  decided  to  convene  a  con- 
ference to  examine  the  whole  question  and  to  draw  up  a  plan  of  cam- 
paign for  the  consideration  of  the  general  government  and  of  the  local 
governments.  This  conference  assembled  at  Simla  on  October  11, 
1909.  In  the  resolution  which  brought  about  the  call  it  is  pointed  out 
that  the  actual  death  rate  from  malarial  fever  in  India  is  5  per  1,000; 
that  this  represents  about  1,130,000  deaths,  and,  as  mortality  in 
malarial  fever  is  ordinarily  low,  a  death  rate  of  even  5  per  1,000  indi- 
cates an  amount  of  sickness,  much  of  it  preventable,  which  clearly 
calls  for  the  best  efforts  that  government  can  make  to  dimmish  it. 
An  editorial  in  the  Journal  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Hygiene  for 


EXAMPLES  OF   MOSQUITO  EXTEEMIXATIVE   MEASURES.        105 

September  15,  in  speaking  of  this  resolution  and  the  proposed  confer- 
ence, anticipated  that  nothing  will  come  out  of  the  movement.  It 
says : 

To  those,  however,  who  have  read  many  similar  resolutions  and  have  perhaps  acted 
on  committees  of  the  sort,  the  solemn  rigmarole,  with  its  characteristic  touch  on  the 
"prohibitive  costs  of  attempts  to  exterminate  the  mosquito,"  implies  no  more  than 
an  expedient  to  stave  off  the  dreaded  day  when  public  opinion  will  force  the  govern- 
ment of  India  to  act  instead  of  to  talk  on  this  really  and  literally  vital  question. 

The  report  of  the  conference  as  given  in  Nature,  November  5,  1909, 
indicates  that  many  important  addresses  were  made,  including  one 
by  Colonel  Leslie,  the  sanitary  commissioner  of  the  government  of 
India,  and  others  by  such  well-known  workers  as  Major  James  and 
Captain  Christophers,  of  the  Indian  medical  service.  Colonel  Leslie 
advocated  quinine  prophylaxis.  Major  James  introduced  a  discus- 
sion upon  the  distribution  of  malaria  in  India  and  advocated  a  gen- 
eral investigation  in  every  province  similar  to  that  which  Captain 
Christophers  made  in  the  Punjab.  Quite  in  the  line  of  prophecies  of 
the  editorial  in  the  Journal  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Hygiene,  Major 
White,  of  the  Indian  medical  service,  stated  that  he  considered  the 
recommendations  of  past  malaria  conferences  are  costly,  and  almost 
prohibitively  so  if  undertaken  annually,  and  contended  that  more 
should  be  done  with  the  propagation  of  fish  which  prey  upon  mosquito 
larvae.  At  the  termination  of  the  conference  various  conclusions  and 
recommendations  were  drawn  up  under  the  following  main  headings: 

(1)  Scientific  investigation;  (2)  the  agency  by  which  investiga- 
tion should  be  made;  (3)  practical  measures,  including  (a)  extirpa- 
tion of  mosquitoes,  (b)  quinine  treatment  and  prophylaxis,  (c) 
education,  and  (d)  finance. 

In  the  United  States,  it  is  sad  to  relate,  almost  nothing  has  been 
done  in  the  way  of  an  active  campaign  against  malaria  alone,  even 
in  restricted  localities.  It  is  true  that  extensive  work  has  been  done 
against  mosquitoes,  but  in  the  most  of  these  cases  the  incentive  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  to  better  the  health  of  the  people  or  to  stamp 
out  malaria.  We  have  shown  that  in  the  New  Jersey  work  the  item 
of  personal  comfort  is  concerned  and  that  of  the  enhanced  value  of 
real  estate  and  the  enhanced  taxable  value  of  land  to  the  community, 
but  the  main  fight  there  is  conducted  against  mosquitoes  that  have  no 
relation  to  disease,  although  Doctor  Smith  has  written  much  against 
malarial  mosquitoes  and  has  conducted  a  strong  educational  cam- 
paign. We  have  shown  also  that  the  fight  against  mosquitoes  in  the 
marshlands  back  of  Brooklyn  was  financed  by  a  wealthy  man  whose 
immediative  motive  was  to  keep  his  race  horses  in  better  condition 
by  preventing  the  annoyance  to  them  of  mosquitoes.  In  different 
communities  there  have  been  intelligent  and  up-to-date  citizens  who 
have  made  strong  efforts  to  start  malarial  campaigns,  but  we  have 


106      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

not  reached  success,  through  indifference  on  the  part  of  city  councils 
or  other  bodies  controlling  public  funds.  Many  health  officers  them- 
selves have  seemed  indifferent  on  this  subject.  In  some  localities  citi- 
zens' associations,  civic  improvement  societies,  and  women's  clubs 
have  made  efforts  to  improve  the  situation.  Good  work  was  done 
by  such  an  orgainzation  in  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  and  instances  of  this 
kind  are  scattered  here  and  there  at  very  long  intervals  over  the 
country,  but  these  efforts  as  a  rule  were  at  first  spasmodic  and  only 
temporary  in  their  effects. 

The  city  of  Baltimore  offers  an  excellent  example  of  what  we  have 
just  stated.  It  was  early  shown  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  mosquito 
supply  could  easily  be  handled,  and  there  were  not  lacking  intelligent 
and  enterprising  citizens  who,  year  after  year  in  the  public  press  and 
before  the  board  of  health  and  the  city  council,  continually  agitated 
the  subject  of  antimosquito  work.  Finally  in  1907  Mr.  George 
Stewart  Brown,  a  member  of  the  city  council,  succeeded  in  getting  an 
appropriation  to  start  the  work  for  that  year.  Much  of  this  money 
was  expended  in  expensive  advertising  in  the  street  cars,  etc.,  but 
the  remainder  was  expended  very  efficiently,  but  necessarily  with  onjy 
partial  results,  by  organizing  a  gang  of  men  to  drain  and  fill  up  pools 
in  vacant  lots  around  the  suburbs.  The  next  year  the  appropriation 
was  reduced,  and  only  the  gang  of  men  was  continued.  During  1909 
no  appropriation  was  made,  the  gang  of  men  was  dropped,  and  the 
whole  question  was  abandoned.  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that 
before  the  appropriation  was  made  an  ordinance  was  passed  by  the 
city  council  requiring  every  householder  to  remove,  screen  with  wire 
netting,  or  keep  covered  with  oil,  all  standing  water  on  his  premises, 
but  it  seems  that  no  real  attempt  was  ever  made  to  enforce  this  ordi- 
nance. Of  course  such  an  attempt  could  hardly  be  successful  at 
first  without  the  aid  of  a  special  appropriation  for  the  purpose.  At 
the  present  time  the  ordinance  seems  to  be  a  dead  letter. 

It  is  true  that  even  where  not  directed  specifically  against  malaria, 
but  against  the  mosquito  nuisance,  the  breeding  places  of  Anopheles 
are  disposed  of,  and  they  are  for  the  most  part  prevented  from 
breeding,  together  with  the  other  species  of  mosquitoes,  and  for  this 
reason  a  little  space  will  be  devoted  to  some  of  the  productive  efforts 
which  have  been  made  in  the  United  States  aside  from  those  which 
have  already  been  considered  at  some  length  in  the  section  on  drain- 
age and  other  neighboring  sections. 

In  the  early  days  of  antimosquito  work  in  this  country,  1901  and 
1902,  the  rather  rare  citizens  who  appreciated  the  situation  and  who 
did  their  best  to  stir  up  their  communities  to  organized  effort  should 
be  mentioned,  and  among  them  we  have  specifically  in  mind  Dr. 
Albert  F.  Woldert,  of  Philadelphia  and  later  of  Texas;  Dr.  Henry 
Skinner,  of  Philadelphia;  Dr.  H.  A.  Veazie  and  Dr.  H.  G.  Beyer  and 


EXAMPLES  OF  MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATIVE   MEASURES.        107 

a  little  later  Dr.  Quitman  Kohnke,  of  New  Orleans;  Mr.  H.  C. 
Weeks,  of  Bayside,  Long  Island;  Mr.  W.  J.  Matheson,  of  Lloyds 
Neck,  Long  Island;  Major  Barton,  of  Winchester,  Va.;  Dr.  W.  S. 
Thayer,  of  Baltimore;  Mr.  Wm.  Lyman  Underwood,  of  Boston;  Dr. 
A.  H.  Doty,  of  New  York;  Mr.  Spencer  Miller,  of  South  Orange,  N.  J.  ; 
Dr.  W.  F.  Robinson,  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J.;  and  Dr.  J.  W.  Dupree,  of 
Baton  Rouge,  La.  We  have  not  mentioned  any  entomologists  in  this 
list,  but  surely  Dr.  John  B.  Smith,  of  New  Jersey;  Prof.  Glenn  W. 
Herrick,  of  Mississippi;  Dr.  E.  P.  Felt,  of  New  York;  Prof.  H.  A. 
Morgan,  of  Louisiana;  Dr.  W.  E.  Britton,  of  Connecticut;  and  Mr. 
D.  L.  Van  Dine,  of  Hawaii,  should  be  named,  and  of  course  since 
those  early  days  nearly  every  economic  entomologist  has  become  an 
apostle.  After  1902  the  ranks  became  greatly  increased,  and  at  the 
present  time  conditions  are  being  bettered,  although  still  without  the 
existence  of  any  large  well-organized  campaign  directed  solely  against 
malaria. 

One  of  the  best  pieces  of  work  with  a  direct  antimalarial  bearing 
that  has  been  carried  on  in  this  country,  and  that  was  begun  at  an 
early  date,  is  that  started  on  Staten  Island  under  Doctor  Doty,  the 
health  officer  of  the  port  of  New  York.  The  following  account  is 
largely  taken,  word  for  word,  from  a  letter  recently  received  from 
Doctor  Doty,  but  it  can  not  be  directly  quoted  on  account  of  occa- 
sional necessary  alterations  of  the  verbiage  of  a  personal  letter. 

Staten  Island,  lying  in  New  York  Harbor,  had  had  a  rather  un- 
enviable reputation  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  mosquitoes 
present  and  the  continued  presence  of  malaria.  It  was  largely  on 
account  of  the  latter  condition  that  Doctor  Doty  began  his  investi- 
gation in  1901.  He  soon  found  that  there  were  two  factors  to  deal 
with  in  this  work,  namely,  the  inland  mosquitoes  and  the  salt-marsh 
mosquitoes. 

In  the  extermination  of  the  inland  mosquitoes,  the  section  of  Staten 
Island  which  was  known  to  contain  many  cases  of  malaria  both  in 
the  acute  and  chronic  forms  was  selected  for  experimental  work. 
This  section  consisted  of  a  basin  or  lowland  about  a  mile  square, 
containing  about  100  small  dwelling  houses  some  distance  apart. 
Within  its  boundaries  were  a  large  number  of  stagnant  pools  varying 
in  size  from  10  feet  in  diameter  to  an  acre  or  more  in  area.  A  house- 
to-house  visit  showed  that  at  least  20  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  of 
this  district  were  suffering  with  some  form  of  malaria,  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  every  house  were  found  typical  breeding  places 
in  the  shape  of  old  tinware,  rain-water  barrels,  cisterns,  cesspools, 
and  ground  depressions,  many  of  which  contained  larvae.  For  the 
purpose  of  detecting  the  presence  of  adult  Anopheles,  glass  tubes 
fitted  with  cotton  plugs  were  distributed  among  the  occupants  of 
these  houses,  with  the  request  that  the  mosquitoes  found  in  the 


108      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

house  at  night  be  captured  and  placed  in  the  tubes.  In  the  collec- 
tion were  found  many  Anopheles.  These  were  particularly  numerous 
in  tubes  coming  from  a  small  group  of  houses.  In  one  of  the  latter 
was  found  a  family  consisting  of  five  persons,  all  of  whom  showed  the 
acute  or  chronic  form  of  malaria.  Doctor  Doty  himself  secured  live 
mosquitoes  from  the  interior  of  this  house.  On  the  first  evening  5 
were  captured,  and  all  but  one  were  Anopheles.  On  the  second 
evening  22  were  collected,  and  of  these  more  than  one-half  were 
Anopheles.  In  a  house  on  the  opposite  corner  was  found  a  patient 
suffering  from  an  acute  attack. 

In  the  beginning  considerable  difficulty  was  found  in  detecting  the 
breeding  places  of  the  Anopheles,  but  this  became  easier  as  the  in- 
spections became  more  thorough.  For  instance,  in  a  group  of  two 
or  three  houses  close  together,  a  number  of  Anopheles  were  captured, 
but  their  breeding  place  could  not  be  found  for  some  time.  Finally, 
in  the  backyard  of  one  of  the  houses,  overgrown  with  weeds,  was 
discovered  a  very  large  metal  receptacle  filled  with  Anopheles  larvae 
and  with  many  adults  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  This  receptacle 
was  almost  entirely  covered  by  underbrush. 

After  this  experience  the  men  employed  learned  to  make  the 
closest  possible  search  and  to  find  probably  every  breeding  place. 

The  island  was  then  divided  into  small  districts,  which  were  visited 
by  a  mosquito  corps  consisting  of  five  men,  one  of  whom  was  a 
sanitary  police  officer  connected  with  the  New  York  City  depart- 
ment of  health.  The  equipment  of  the  mosquito  corps  consisted  of  a 
large  wagon  provided  with  spades,  rakes,  hoes,  scythes,  and  petroleum 
oil.  A  house-to-house  inspection  was  made  in  each  district.  House 
owners  or  tenants  were  required  to  remove  from  about  the  premises 
all  receptacles  which  might  act  as  breeding  places,  or  to  protect  them. 
Rain-water  barrels  and  cisterns  were  covered  with  wire  netting,  all 
roof  gutters  were  repaired,  and  pools  of  water  were  covered  with 
petroleum.  In  certain  instances  orders  were  sent  to  the  owners  of 
property  containing  depressions  in  the  soil  to  fill  them  or  drain  them. 
If  these  orders  could  not  be  enforced,  the  mosquito  corps  returned 
every  ten  days  or  two  weeks  and  applied  more  petroleum.  Copies  of 
a  circular  of  information  were  delivered  so  far  as  possible  to  each 
house  on  Staten  Island  by  police  officers,  and  this  educational  cam- 
paign brought  about  valuable  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  public. 

In  1905  the  details  of  this  work  were  presented  to  the  department 
of  health  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  the  city  government  granted 
an  appropriation  for  the  drainage  of  the  swamp  land  along  the 
entire  coast  of  the  island.  With  the  aid  of  this  appropriation,  ditch- 
ing was  carried  on  somewhat  in  the  same  manner  in  which  it  has  been 
carried  on  in  New  Jersey.  Down  to  the  present  time  between  800 
and  1,000  miles  of  ditches  have  been  dug.     The  swarms  of  mos- 


EXAMPLES  OF   MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATIVE   MEASURES.        109 

quitoes  soon  practically  disappeared,  window  screens  were  discarded, 
and  meals  were  served  upon  the  verandas  of  the  hotels. 

With  the  malarial  and  other  inland  mosquitoes  the  work  was  car- 
ried on  in  the  manner  above  described,  not  only  in  the  built-up 
portion  of  the  island,  but  also  in  the  open  spaces  between  the  small 
and  scattered  settlements.  During  the  past  two  years  cases  of 
malaria  on  Staten  Island  have  become  practically  unknown,  and  for 
the  past  year  Doctor  Doty  has  been  unable  to  secure  any  Anopheles, 
whereas  in  the  beginning  of  the  investigation  they  were  found  almost 
everywhere  on  the  island.  The  statistics  of  the  department  of 
health  indicate  the  decrease  of  malaria  from  1905  on.  Prior  to  1905 
malaria  was  not  regularly  reported,  but  the  number  of  cases  was 
surely  very  much  greater  than  that  reported  in  that  year.  Since 
1905,  however,  they  are  stated  to  be  as  follows:  1905,  33  cases;  1906, 
54  cases;  1907,  4  cases;  1908,  6  cases;  1909,  5  cases. 

The  work  of  exterminating  malarial  mosquitoes  has  been  neces- 
sarily slow,  as  the  area  involved  is  considerable,  the  island  being 
about  16  miles  long  and  from  4  to  6  miles  wide,  probably  containing 
over  80,000  inhabitants,  with  large  areas  between  the  various  towns. 

The  expense  of  the  operations  down  to  the  present  date  has  been 
about  $50,000;  this  of  course  includes  the  expense  of  the  extensive 
drainage  operations  in  the  salt  marshes.  Doctor  Doty,  in  addition 
to  being  the  health  officer  of  the  port  of  New  York,  is  a  commissioner 
of  health  of  New  York  City,  and  he  carried  out  this  work  in  his 
capacity  as  a  municipal  officer  and  not  as  a  state  official. 

There  were  some  earlier  and  very  much  smaller  pieces  of  work, 
which  have  previously  been  described  by  the  writer. 

Dr.  W.  N.  Berkeley,  in  the  Medical  Record  of  January  26,  1901, 
gave  a  most  interesting  account  of  a  malarial  outbreak  in  a  small 
town  near  New  York  City  during  the  summer  of  1900.  Around  a 
large  pond  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  four  or  five  fresh  cases  had 
recently  developed  in  August.  The  first  case  was  that  of  a  coach- 
man, who  had  caught  malaria  elsewhere  and  had  relapsed.  From 
his  quarters  in  a  long  row  of  stables  on  one  side  of  the  pond  the 
infection  had  passed  along  to  other  stablemen  and  servants  on  the 
same  side,  to  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  original 
site,  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  another  direction  across  the  pond 
one  other  case  appeared  in  a  small  child.  Doctor  Berkeley  went 
to  the  town  and  discovered  that  Anopheles  quadrimaculatus  was 
fairly  abundant  in  every  bedroom  in  that  area  in  which  proper  search 
was  made.  The  breeding  places  seemed  to  be  segregated  pools  at 
the  end  of  the  pond  (the  pond  itself  contained  fish)  and  post  holes 
and  excavations.  These  last  were  numerous,  as  many  buildings  were 
going  up.  The  following  practical  measures  were  adopted:  (1)  Ex- 
termination of  all  the  Anopheles  found  in  houses  by  a  party  of  men 


110      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

sent  out  for  the  purpose,  and  this  was  followed  by  a  systematic 
introduction  of  screens  in  windows  and  doors;  (2)  filling  in  of  the 
smaller  breeding  places  and  the  drainage  of  the  pond;  (3)  the  seclu- 
sion of  every  malarious  patient  by  netting  and  otherwise  from  the 
bite  of  mosquitoes,  so  long  as  he  had  germs  in  his  capillary  blood. 
The  results  were  as  prompt  as  they  were  gratifying.  Not  a  single 
new  case  of  malaria  developed;  Anopheles  disappeared  entirely  from 
houses  where  it  had  been  previously  a  night  terror,  and  Culex  was 
greatly  diminished  in  numbers. 

Another  interesting  case  has  been  described  by  Rev.  William 
Brayshaw,  of  Chaptico,  Md.  Chaptico  is  situated  at  the  head  of  a 
widespreading  bay  or  elbow  of  the  Wicomico  River,  about  8  miles 
from  the  point  where  this  river  enters  into  the  Potomac  at  Rock 
Point.  The  tide  is  ordinarily  about  2  feet  at  the  full.  The  village 
rests  between  two  hills  of  80  or  90  feet  elevation.  The  valley  is 
almost  flat,  and  consists  of  marshy  pools,  in  which  the  mud  or  ooze 
can  easily  be  pierced  with  a  strong  pole  to  a  depth  of  several  feet. 
Three  of  these  pools  or  ponds  are  directly  in  the  rear  of  the  house 
known  as  the  rectory,  in  which  he  resided  with  his  wife  on  June  24, 
1890.  Neither  of  them  had  ever  had  malaria  or  fever  before,  but 
the  mosquitoes  were  so  numerous  that  it  was  impossible  to  take  rest 
at  night  for  a  while.  On  July  11  his  wife  was  taken  with  malaria, 
and  on  September  4  had  to  be  removed  to  the  mountains.  Mr.  Bray- 
shaw himself  was  sick  most  of  the  time,  and  every  house  in  the  vil- 
lage had  from  one  to  five  persons  suffering  from  malaria.  He  pro- 
posed ditching  and  drainage,  but  there  was  no  money,  and  every- 
body laughed  at  the  idea,  as  many  of  the  citizens  had  lived  there 
from  childhood  to  an  advanced  age.  There  did  not  seem  to  be  suf- 
ficient fall  to  carry  off  the  "  effete  matter."  On  May  19,  1900,  he 
gained  the  consent  of  the  property  owners  to  ditch  through  their 
land  a  distance  of  560  feet  to  Chaptico  Creek.  He  paid  for  this 
himself.  The  expense  was  about  $40.  The  result  he  sums  up  as 
follows : 

During  the  summer  of  1899,  from  May  to  October,  the  mosquitoes  were  so  numerous 
that  life  was  a  burden  during  the  night,  and  they  were  so  small  that  nets  seemed  to 
have  no  effect  upon  them.  From  May  to  October,  1900,  quite  a  number  visited  us, 
until  June  12,  when  they  disappeared,  and  we  were  free  from  them  until  the  last  six 
days  in  September,  when  I  found  a  local  cause  for  their  breeding.  In  the  summer 
of  1899  every  house  in  the  village  had  from  one  to  five  persons  sick  with  chills  and 
fever  and  other  malarial  troubles;  doctors  in  constant  attendance.  In  the  summer  of 
1900  there  were  only  two  sporadic  cases  of  chills,  both  caused  by  negligence  or  inat- 
tention to  ordinary  caution.  Everyone  in  the  village  seems  quite  free  from  malaria 
since  July  10. 

Later  some  excellent  work  was  instituted  through  the  combined 
action  of  the  boards  of  health  of  Cambridge  and  Belmont,  Mass.,  to 
improve  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  cities  of  Cambridge,  Somer- 


EXAMPLES  OF  MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATIVE  MEASURES.    Ill 

ville,  and  the  towns  of  Arlington  and  Belmont,  at  the  inspiration  of 
Mr.  W.  L.  Underwood,  a  member  of  one  of  the  boards  of  health. 
This  was  effectively  carried  out  at  an  expense  of  $600  without  assess- 
ment upon  landholders.  An  account  of  this  work  by  Mr.  Under- 
wood is  given  in  the  Technology  Quarterly  of  March,  1901. 

The  work  of  the  North  Shore  Improvement  Association  of  Long 
Island  has  been  mentioned  rather  fully  in  the  sections  on  remedies. 
This  work  was  thorough  and  resulted  in  the  improved  sanitation  of 
that  portion  of  Long  Island.  In  1903  some  extensive  work  was  done 
in  Newport,  R.  L,  at  the  expense  of  the  property  holders,  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  Henry  Clay  Weeks,  with  good  results.  The  Citizens' 
Association  of  Flushing,  Long  Island,  later  took  up  the  problem, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  the  board  of  health  extensive  drainage 
operations  have  been  carried  on  but  are  not  yet  completed.  At 
Wellfleet,  Mass.,  other  work  of  a  somewhat  similar  character,  but 
directed  for  the  most  part  against  the  salt-marsh  mosquitoes,  is  now 
under  way. 

A  most  interesting  bit  of  work  was  carried  on  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn  in  1902-3,  under  the  supervision  of  Mr. 
Weeks,  which  has  been  described  in  the  chapter  on  remedies.  This 
work,  which  was  of  an  expensive  character,  was  lately  paid  for  by  a 
private  citizen,  Mr.  Whitney. 

An  important  step  forward  was  taken  in  1903  in  the  formation  of 
the  American  Mosquito  Extermination  Society,  in  which  W.  J. 
Matheson,  of  New  York,  the  president,  and  Henry  Clay  Weeks, 
also  of  New  York,  the  secretary,  were  the  leading  movers.  This 
society,  in  which  nearly  all  persons  actively  interested  in  the  mos- 
quito crusade  became  interested,  was  started  for  the  purpose  of  edu- 
cating the  public,  bringing  about  legislation,  and  securing  coopera- 
tion and  interchange  of  ideas.  It  held  its  first  antimosquito  con- 
vention December  16,  1903,  in  the  rooms  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
Transportation,  Mail  and  Express  Building,  New  York  City.  The 
convention  was  called  to  order  by  Mr.  Henry  Clay  Weeks  as  acting 
chairman,  who  made  some  introductory  remarks,  after  which  officers 
were  elected.     The  following  papers  were  read: 

"How  a  State  Appropriation  May  be  Spent,"  by  John  B.  Smith. 

"What  a  Rural  Community  Can  Do,"  by  Walter  C.  Kerr. 

"The  World-Wide  Crusade,"  by  L.  O.  Howard. 

"Does  Extermination  Exterminate  Mosquitoes?"  by  W.  J.  Matheson. 

"Remarks  on  Extermination  Work  at  Morristown,  New  Jersey,"  by  John  Claflin. 

"The  Extermination  and  Exclusion  of  Mosquitoes  from  Our  Public  Institutions," 
by  P.  H.  Bailhache,  surgeon,  U.  S.  Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service. 

"Government  Antimosquito  Work,"  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Perry. 

"The  Sphere  of  Health  Departments,"  by  Dr.  E.  J.  Lederle. 

"The  Exactness  of  Proofs  of  Transmission  of  Malaria  by  Mosquitoes,"  by  Dr.  W.  N. 
Berkeley. 

"The  Long-Distance  Theory,"  by  Spencer  Miller. 


112      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

"  The  Value  of  Reclaimed  Swamp  Lands  for  Agricultural  Uses, "  by  Milton  Whitney. 

11 Antimosquito  Work  in  Havana,"  by  Col.  W.  C.  Gorgas,  U.  S.  A. 

"How  the  Law  Should  Aid,"  by  Paul  D.  Cravath. 

"New  York  State's  Part  in  Mosquito  Extermination,"  by  E.  P.  Felt. 

"What  the  Government  Should  Do,"  by  F.  C.  Beech. 

"Mosquito  Engineering,"  by  Henry  Clay  Weeks. 

"The  Work  of  the  Department  of  Health,  New  York  City,"  by  Henry  C.  Weeks. 

Following  this  organization  meeting,  a  somewhat  elaborate  organi- 
zation was  perfected,  including  an  advisory  board  and  an  advisory 
board  of  entomologists.  The  proceedings  of  the  convention  were  pub- 
lished in  pamphlet  form  and  were  distributed  free  of  charge.  A  mos- 
quito brief  was  published  as  a  folder  giving  mosquito  information. 
In  November,  1904,  Bulletin  No.  1  of  the  society  was  published, 
which  contained  in  digested  form  an  account  of  the  work  which  had 
been  going  on  in  the  meantime.  Bulletin  No.  2  contained  a  report 
of  the  president  and  secretary  to  the  executive  council,  published 
September  26,  1905,  and  in  1906  was  also  published  a  yearbook  for 
1904-1905,  which  contained  the  proceedings  of  the  second  annual 
convention  of  the  organization.  These  proceedings  contained  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  addresses,  some  of  which  may  be  mentioned: 

"Diversities  among  New  York  Mosquitoes,"  by  E.  P.  Felt. 

"Mosquito  Extermination  in  New  Jersey,"  by  John  B.  Smith. 

"Extermination  and  Dissection  of  Mosquitoes,"  by  M.  J.  Rosenau  of  the  United 
States  Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service. 

"Mosquito  Extermination  in  New  York  City,"  by  Thomas  Darlington. 

"The  Mosquito  Question,"  by  Quitman  Kohnke. 

"  The  Relation  of  Mosquito  Extermination  to  Engineering,"  by  Cornelius  C.  Ver- 
meule. 

The  society  continued  its  work,  and  unquestionably  well  justified 
its  organization.  In  1907,  however,  it  was  deemed  by  the  officers  of 
the  society  that  the  objects  of  its  existence  could  well  be  taken  over 
by  the  National  Drainage  Association,  which  had  then  recently  been 
formed  and  which  placed  among  its  most  prominent  motives  the  idea 
of  securing  favorable  government  action  in  redeeming  the  marshes 
and  swamps  of  the  country.  It  was  decided  that  the  society  should 
retire  from  its  field  of  work  and  leave  the  same  to  the  Government, 
States,  and  other  authorities  and  to  individuals,  and  the  society  then 
disbanded. 

In  1903-1904  work  against  mosquitoes  was  undertaken  by  the  State 
entomologist  of  Connecticut,  Dr.  W.  E.  Britton,  who  made  careful 
mosquito  surveys  over  the  whole  State  and  who  published  in  his 
annual  report  for  1904  a  careful  and  well-illustrated  article  devoted 
to  showing  how  the  mosquito  nuisance  can  be  abated.  Since  that 
time  some  active  work  has  been  taken  up.  In  1906  the  board  of 
health  of  Millburn  Township  in  New  Jersey  secured  the  services  of 
Mr.  Weeks,  and  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  "The  Mosquito  Nui- 
sance in  Millburn  Township  and  How  to  Abate  It." 


EXAMPLES  OF  MOSQUITO  EXTERMINATIVE  MEASURES.    113 

At  Worcester,  Mass.,  an  interesting  crusade  was  begun' early  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  William  McKibben  and  Prof.  C.  F.  Hodge.  In 
Michigan  work  was  carried  on  upon  the  campus  of  the  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural College.  In  Connecticut  work  was  earlier  done  at  Pine 
Orchard  and  Ansonia,  as  well  as  at  Bridgeport,  Branford,  Fairfield, 
and  Hartford;  and  in  Maine  at  Old  Orchard  Beach.  Excellent  work 
was  also  done  at  a  very  early  date  at  Lawrence,  Long  Island,  largely 
against  malarial  mosquitoes,  under  the  auspices  of  the  board  of 
health,  working  with  an  appropriation  of  $1,000  and  with  a  pri- 
vately contributed  fund  of  $1,678.84.  A  small  crusade  was  also 
carried  on  at  an  early  date  under  the  auspices  of  the  civic  committees 
of  the  Twentieth  Century  Club  at  Richmond  Hill,  Long  Island.  In 
the  Southern  States  the  boards  of  health  of  Atlanta  and  Savannah 
began  work  in  1903  and  certain  regulations  were  enforced.  At  Talla- 
dega, Ala.,  work  was  also  begun  in  the  same  year.  The  excellent 
work  done  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  under  an  improvement  society  in 
1903  should  not  be  forgotten. 

The  work  which  has  been  done  in  Cuba  and  in  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Zone  has  been  elsewhere  described.  In  the  Territory  of  Hawaii  work 
was  begun  in  Honolulu  in  1903  against  the  local  mosquito  plague. 
It  should  be  stated  that  Anopheles  mosquitoes  are  not  known  in 
Hawaii,  and  that  although  the  yellow  fever  mosquito  occurs  there  in 
numbers  the  disease  has  never  been  introduced.  A  general  cam- 
paign, however,  was  begun  under  the  auspices  of  the  board  of  health 
and  commercial  bodies  of  Honolulu,  and  a  meeting  was  held  on  August 
15,  at  which  a  citizens'  committee  of  Honolulu  was  organized  to  work 
in  cooperation  with  the  board  of  health  and  to  be  supported  by  sub- 
scriptions. The  president  of  the  board  of  health  was  made  chairman 
of  the  committee,  and  a  salaried  agent  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
work.  A  campaign  was  continued  for  a  year  and  a  half,  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  $3,000,  donated  entirely  by  public-spirited  citizens.  With  the 
help  of  this  fund  the  citizens'  committee  demonstrated  conclusively 
that  it  was  possible  to  rid  the  city  of  the  mosquito  nuisance.  Contin- 
uation of  the  work,  however,  on  the  basis  of  private  subscriptions, 
was  found  impracticable,  and  later  the  work  was  turned  over  to  the 
board  of  health  and  an  item  of  $7,200  to  continue  the  campaign  for 
two  years  was  proposed  for  the  regular  appropriation  bill  of  that 
department  of  the  territorial  government  at  the  session  of  the  next 
legislature.  The  item,  however,  did  not  receive  the  indorsement  of 
the  administration  in  the  interests  of  economy,  and  the  board  of 
health  since  that  time  has  relied  upon  money  from  private  subscrip- 
tions and  carried  on  the  work  as  actively  as  possible  with  the  small 
amount  gathered  both  in  Honolulu  and  other  districts  of  the  island. 
In  the  course  of  this  work  mosquito-eating  fish  were  introduced,  as 
shown  in  the  chapter  on  utilization  of  natural  enemies  of  mosquitoes. 
37713— Bull.  88—10 8 


114      PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES. 

CONCLUSION. 

It  will  thus  appear  that,  considering  the  economic  loss  existing  in 
the  United  States  through  malaria,  nothing  like  the  competent  work 
has  been  done  that  should  have  been  done,  or  really  that  should  have 
been  done  in  the  past  eight  years  within  the  territorial  limits  of  the 
United  States  themselves.  The  United  States  Government  has  done 
admirable  work  in  Cuba,  for  another  people,  and  it  has  done  excellent 
work  in  the  Isthmian  Canal  Zone,  but  in  its  own  home  territory  it  has 
done  nothing.  State  governments  have  done  almost  nothing,  if  we 
except  the  drainage  work  done  in  New  Jersey.  Malaria  campaigns 
have  been  local  and  on  the  whole  very  unsatisfactory. 

The  writer  in  1903,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  First  Anti-Mosquito 
Convention  in  New  York,  December  16,  after  summarizing  the  work 
which  had  already  been  done  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  under 
the  title  "  The  World-Wide  Crusade/'  said : 

The  main  incentive  to  all  this  world-wide  movement  has  been  the  prevention  of 
disease.  Probably  nowhere  else  in  the  world  has  the  motive  of  personal  comfort 
entered  into  the  crusade  as  it  has  in  the  United  States,  and  we  have  already  carried 
this  aspect  of  the  work  much  further  than  any  other  country.  When  we  consider  the 
enormous  sums  of  money  spent  in  the  United  States  for  luxuries,  how  much  more 
should  be  spent  for  bare  comfort  and  peace! 

Abundant  evidence  has  been  gained  in  the  important  work  which  has  been  done 
here  and  elsewhere  during  the  past  two  years  to  show  that  mosquitoes  in  any  definite 
region  can  be  reduced  to  a  point  far  below  the  danger  line  and  quite  within  the  comfort 
line,  and  in  many  instances  it  has  been  shown  that  they  can  be  exterminated,  at  least 
for  a  time.  This  work  will  undoubtedly  continue,  but  there  are  many  communities 
which  need  constant  prodding.  The  organization  of  the  antimosquito  forces  in  this 
convention  which  you  are  to  hold  will  greatly  stimulate  public  opinion,  and  will 
induce  many  of  the  indifferent  to  take  a  more  sanguine  view  of  possibilities,  and 
perhaps  more  energetic  action  toward  actual  work. 

The  same  comparative  indifference  holds  in  other  countries,  and 
often  even  where  work  is  begun  under  good  auspices  and  with  excellent 
indications  it  has  failed  of  securing  the  best  results.  Maj.  C.  E.  P. 
Fowler,  R.  A.  M.  C,  in  his  report  on  malarial  investigations  in 
Mauritius,  1908,  points  out  that  on  that  island  the  great  fault  has 
been  in  nonattention  to  small  details,  such  as  the  formation  of  an 
organization  to  deal  with  the  neglected  surface  water  found  in  the 
small  ditches  along  roadsides,  in  field  drainage  channels,  and  small 
collections  of  water  in  holes  in  the  ground,  and  to  keep  up  the  larger 
work  which  has  already  been  carried  out.  He  states  that  no  allow- 
ance or  forethought  seems  ever  to  have  been  expended  on  keeping  the 
work  already  carried  through  in  proper  working  order.  Where  drains 
or  ditches  had  been  laid  down  only  a  few  months  previously  he  found 
them  time  after  time  choked  with  vegetation  and  forming  excellent 
places  for  Anopheles.  The  same  thing  was  found  in  the  rivers ;  the 
government  had  cleared  them,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  nobody's 


CONCLUSION.  115 

business  to  keep  them  clear.  According  to  this  report,  there  seems 
to  be  a  general  impression  among  all  classes  of  people,  not  only  in 
Mauritius  but  elsewhere,  that  to  carry  on  antimalarial  work  means 
the  outlay  of  vast  sums.  People  prefer  to  sit  idle  and  complain  that 
they  have  not  the  means  to  carry  out  the  work.  He  shows  that  a 
few  gangs  of  men  can  do  a  great  deal  in  the  way  of  ridding  a  district 
of  breeding  grounds,  and  that  their  employment  does  not  need  a  heavy 
outlay. 

Looking  over  the  whole  field,  it  is  easily  seen  that  work  in  this  direc- 
tion has  hardly  begun.  There  is  so  much  to  do  in  comparison  with 
what  has  been  accomplished  or  what  has  really  been  undertaken  that 
it  is  almost  discouraging  when  we  consider  that  it  is  already  eleven 
years  since  the  function  of  mosquitoes  in  the  carriage  of  disease  was 
established.  It  seems  as  though  such  a  discovery  as  this  should  have 
commanded  immediate  and  widespread  attention  and  should  have 
caused  the  liberal  expenditure  of  money  from  many  sources  in  the 
effort  to  rid  the  human  race  of  some  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to 
sanitary  progress. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Adinia,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 68 

Aides  calopus  (see  also  Stegomyia  fasciata  and  Mosquito,  yellow  fever). 

breeding  places 19-22 

in  Habana 92-93 

protective  liquids  applied  at  night  not  effective  repellents 13 

cantans  abundant  on  Wicken  Fen 27 

cantator,  distribution  and  seasonal  appearance  in  New  Jersey 51 

sollicitans,  distribution  and  seasonal  appearance  in  New  Jersey 51 

in  New  Orleans 79 

tuniorhynchus,  distribution  and  seasonal  appearance  in  New  Jersey 51 

Africa,  German  East,  fish  destructive  to  mosquitoes 70-71 

Alabama,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 113 

Alcohol  as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites 41 

castor  oil,  and  oil  of  lavender  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

Algse.     (See  Water  plants.) 

Algeria,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 98-99 

Ammonia  as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites 41 

Amyl  alcohol  and  kerosene  against  mosquito  larvse 75 

Anablaps,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 67 

Anopheles  argyritarsis  in  Habana 92-93 

bifurcatus,  breeding  in  water  of  peat  cuttings 27 

deterred  from  breeding  by  growth  of  Lemna  arrhiza  and 

L.  minor 29 

in  Algeria 98-99 

Cyprus 65 

Ismailia 100 

Staten  Island 107-109 

maculipennis  (see  also  Anopheles  quadrimaculatus) . 

as  affected  by  fumigation  with  Mimms  Culicide 34 

deterred  from  breeding  by  growth  of  Lemna  arrhiza  and 

L.  minor 29 

in  peaty  water  and  near  peat  piles 27 

unaffected  by  pawpaw  or  castor-oil  plants 24-25 

nigripes,  breeding  in  water  of  peat  cuttings 27 

quadrimaculatus,  breeding  in  places  inaccessible  to  fish 72 

in  small  town  near  New  York  City 109-110 

Aphredoderus,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 66 

Aquatic  vegetation.     (See  Water  plants.) 
Azolla.     (See  Duckweeds.) 

Baltimore,  Md.,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 106 

117 


118     PREVENTIVE   AND   REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Page. 

Barrels,  water,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19  20 

screening  against  mosquitoes 18-19 

"Barrigudo."     (See  Girardinus  caudimaculatus .) 

"Basil "  plant  as  deterrent  against  mosquitoes 27 

Belgium,  reclaimed  marsh  lands 53 

Bergamot  oil  and  kerosene  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 14 

Black  flies.     (See  Flies,  black.) 

Bottles,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19 

broken,   forming  cheval-de-frise  on   stone  wall,   breeding  places  of 

mosquitoes 20 

Boxes,  tin  and  wooden,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19 

Brazilian  fish,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 71 

Brooklyn,  reclamation  of  salt  marsh 55 

Buckets,  fire,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

Cactus,  sticky  paste  made  from  leaves  as  mosquito  larvicide 74 

California,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 44-47 

reclaimed  swamp  lands 54 

Camphor  spirits,  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

oil  of  citronella,  and  oil  of  cedar  as  protection  from  mosquito 

bites lb 

Canopies  and  screens  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 14-18 

Cans,  tin,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19 

Carassius  auratus.     (See  Goldfish.) 

Carbolic  acid  preparations  as  mosquito  larvicides 74 

resin,  and  caustic  soda  as  mosquito  larvicide 79 

Carica  papaya.     (See  Pawpaw.) 

Carp,  reported  enemy  of  mosquitoes 63 

Cascarilla  bark  smudge  against  mosquitoes 30 

Cassia,  oil,  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 13 

Castor  oil,  alcohol,  and  oil  of  lavender  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

plant  as  deterrent  against  mosquitoes 23-25 

Catch-basins  in  sewers,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 21-22 

Caustic  soda,  resin,  and  carbolic  acid  as  mosquito  larvicide 79 

Cedar  oil,  spirits  of  camphor,  and  oil  of  citronella  as  protection  from  mosquito 

bites 13 

Center  Island  in  Long  Island  Sound,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 9,  43 

Ceratopogon,  capture  in  trap  for  adult  mosquitoes 40 

Cesspools,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20-21 

Chaptico,  Md.,  mosquitoes  and  malaria 110 

Chinaberry  trees  as  deterrents  against  mosquitoes 25 

Chloral  vapors  as  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 37 

Chlorin  gas  as  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 37 

Chloro-naphtholeum  as  mosquito  larvicide 74 

Chrysanthemum  powder.     (See  Pyrethrum  powder.) 

Citronella  oil  and  vaseline  as  protection  against  mosquito  bites 13 

application  to  screens  to  keep  mosquitoes  from  passing  through. .  15 
mutton  tallow,  black  tar,  and  pennyroyal  as  protection  against 

mosquitoes  and  black  flies 13 

protection  from  mosquito  bites 13 

spirits  of  camphor,  and  oil  of  cedar  as  protection  from  mosquito 

bites 13 

Connecticut,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 112, 113 

Copper  sulphate,  impractical  as  mosquito  larvicide 73 


INDEX.  119 

Page. 

Corn  oil,  impractical  as  mosquito  larvicide 74-75 

Cover,  cheap,  for  well-mouths  or  water  barrels 19 

Cresol  preparations  as  mosquito  larvicides 74 

Culex  abominator,  breeding  in  places  inaccessible  to  fish 72 

fatigans  along  river  front  in  Egypt 88 

dwarf  individuals,  how  caused 16-17 

pungens  (see  also  Culex  pipiens). 

as  affected  by  fumigation  with  Mimms  Culicide 34 

larvae  asphyxiated  in  lemna-covered  water 30 

pipiens  (see  also  Culex  pungens). 

breeding  places 19-22 

unaffected  by  pawpaw  or  castor-oil  plants 24-25 

quinquefasciatus,  breeding  places 19-22 

destroyed  in  fumigation  with  Mimms  Culicide 33 

in  Habana 92-93 

Culicide,  Mimms,  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 33-34 

Culiseta  annulata  in  peaty  water  and  near  peat  piles. . , 27 

Cups  of  water  used  to  insulate  table  legs  from  ants,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes .  20 

Cyprinodon  calaritanus,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 71 

enemies  of  mosquitoes 66,  67 

Cyprinoid  fish  in  Trinidad,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 63 

Cyprus,  malarial  mosquito  larvae  destroyed  by  goldfish 65 

Dalmatian  insect  powder.     (See  Pyrethrum  powder.) 
Datura  stramonium.     (See  "Jimson"  weed.) 

Derris  uliginosa,  decoctions  and  emulsions  as  mosquito  larvicides 78 

Diaphanous,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 66 

Diemyctylus  tortosus,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 62 

' '  Dimorphism  of  seasons  " 17 

Dinitrocresol  as  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 37 

Ditching  machinery  (see  also  Excavating  machinery*. 

used  in  drainage  work  in  New  Jersey 51 

Dragonflies,  enemies  of  mosquitoes 62 

Drainage  investigations  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 55-58 

measures  in  controlling  mosquitoes 42-53 

Duckweed,  rootless.     (See  Lemna  arrhiza.) 
Duckweeds  (see  also  Lemna  arrhiza  and  L.  minor.) 

as  deterrents  against  mosquito  larva? 28-30 

Egypt,  work  against  mosquitoes  along  river  fronts 88 

Electricity,  suggested  use  against  mosquito  larvae 79 

Enemies,  natural,  of  mosquitoes,  their  practical  use 62-72 

England,  reclaimed  marsh  lands 53,  54 

Enneacanthus  gloriosus,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 67 

obesus,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 67 

Ephemera  larvae,  food  of  fish 67 

Eucalyptus  as  deterrent  against  mosquitoes 22-23 

Excavating  machinery  (sec  also  Ditching  machinery). 

for  digging  ditches  and  building  levees,   publication 

thereon 55-56 

Federated  Malay  States,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 89-92 

Filariasis,  use  of  sulphur  dioxid  in  disinfection 37 

Fire  buckets.     (See  Buckets,  fire.) 


120     PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Page. 

Fish  and  mosquitoes,  Mr.  Thibault's  observations  on  normal  relation 72 

enemies  of  mosquitoes 63-72 

in  Brazil  that  destroy  mosquitoes 71 

German  East  Africa  that  destroy  mosquitoes 70-71 

West  Indies  that  destroy  mosquitoes 69-70 

introduction  into  Hawaii  to  abate  mosquitoes 68-69 

New  Jersey  to  destroy  mosquitoes 67-68 

Flea  bites,  naphthaline  moth  balls  as  remedy 41 

Flies,  black,  mixture  as  protection  from  bites 13 

Fly,  house,  as  affected  by  fumigation  with  Mimms  Culicide 34 

Footprints  of  cattle  and  horses  in  marshy  ground,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes.  20 

Formaldehyde  gas  as  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 37,  38 

Fountains,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 21 

Fumigants  against  mosquitoes 30-40 

Fundulus  (see  also  Killifishes). 

grandis,  introduction  into  Hawaii  to  abate  mosquitoes 69 

notatus,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 63 

sp.,  use  against  mosquitoes  in  New  Jersey 52 

Furrows  in  garden  containing  water,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

Gambusia  affinis,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 63,  65,  67-68 

introduction  into  Hawaii  to  abate  mosquitoes 69 

Georgia,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 113 

Germany,  recent  work  against  mosquitoes 87-88 

reclaimed  marsh  lands 53 

Girardinus  caudimaculatus,  use  in  destroying  mosquito  larvae 71,  97 

poeciloides,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 69-70 

Gloves  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 14 

Glycerin  as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites 41 

Gnat  larvae,  food  of  fishes 67 

Goldfish,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 63,  64-67 

Greece,  antimalarial  league 104 

Green  Harbor,  Mass. ,  reclaimed  marshes 54 

Habana,  mosquito  exterminative  measures,  1901-2 92-93 

Hawaii,  fish  introduced  to  abate  mosquitoes 68-69 

mosquito  exterminative  measures 113 

Hay  crops  o'n  salt  marsh  lands  before  and  after  drainage 60-61 

Heterandria  for  n.  osa,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 65-66,  67 

Heteroditus,  enem y  of  mosquitoes 66 

Holland,  reclaimed  marsh  lands 53,  54,  58 

Holy-water  fonts,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes : 20 

Hot  lamp  chimney  as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites 42 

Illinois,  reclaimed  swamp  lands 54 

India,  conference  regarding  mosquito  control 104-105 

Indiana,  reclaimed  swamp  lands 54 

Indigo  lump,  remedy  for  mosquito  bites 41 

Insect  powder,  Dalmatian.     (See  Pyrethrum  powder.) 

Persian.     (See  Pyrethrum  powder.) 

Iodin  and  saponated  petroleum  as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites  and  wasp  stings. .  42 

as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites 41 

Ismailia,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 100 

Italy,  drainage  work  near  Milan,  benefits  therefrom 59 

mosquito  exterminative  measures '. 104 


INDEX.  121 

Page. 

Japan,  experimental  and  protective  measures  against  mosquitoes 102-104 

"  Jimson  "  weed,  powdered,  as  smudge  against  mosquitoes 37 

Kerosene  against  mosquito  larvae,  early  recommendations 7-9 

and  amyl  alcohol  against  mosquito  larvae 75 

bergamot  oil  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 14 

apparatus  for  automatically  and  regularly  distributing  it  on  surface 

of  streams  to  kill  mosquito  larvae 79-80 

application  to  screens  to  keep  mosquitoes  from  passing  through 15 

as  mosquito  larvicide 75-77 

drawbacks  to  use  in  tropical  regions 77 

protection  from  mosquito  bites 13-14 

use  in  catching  adult  mosquitoes 41 

' '  Killarvae  "  against  mosquitoes *. 74 

Killifishes  (see  also  Fundulus). 

enemies  of  mosquitoes 66-67 

Klang.     (See  Federated  Malay  States.) 

Lands,  reclaimed,  their  value 53-62 

Larvicides  against  mosquitoes 72-80 

Larvicide  used  against  mosquitoes  at  Isthmus  of  Panama 79-80 

Lavender  oil,  alcohol,  and  castor  oil  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

Lawrence,  L.  I.,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 43-44, 113 

Leaves  of  broad-leaved  water  plants,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 21 

Lemna  arrhiza  and  L.  minor  as  deterrents  against  mosquito  larvae 29 

Lemon  juice  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

Long  Island,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 9-10,  43-44,  47, 113 

Lucania,  enemies  of  mosquitoes 66,  67 

Lutzia  bigotii,  enemy  of  yellow-fever  mosquito 63 

Macrosomia  in  plants  and  animals 16-17 

Maine,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 113 

Malaria  and  mosquitoes  in  Algeria 98-99 

Chaptico,  Md 110 

China 103 

Cuba 103-104 

Cyprus 65 

Federated  Malay  States 89-92 

Formosa 102-103 

Habana,  1900-1907 93 

India 104-105 

Ismailia 100 

Italy 104 

Japan 102-104 

Japanese  army 102-104 

Leipzig,  Germany 87 

Mauritius 114-115 

Panama 94 

small  town  near  New  York  City 109-110 

Staten  Island 107-109 

United  States 105-111 

U.  S.  Army,  Santiago,  Cuba 103-104 

use  of  sulphur  dioxid  in  disinfection 37 

Marshes,  drainage  in  control  of  mosquitoes 42-53 

Massachusetts,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 110-111, 113 


122     PREVENTIVE   AND   REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Page. 

Mauritius,  mosquito  ex termi native  measures 114-115 

Megarhinus,  enemies  of  other  mosquitoes 62 

Mercuric  chlorid  as  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 39-40 

Mesogonistius  chxtodon,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 67 

Michigan,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 113 

reclaimed  swamp  lands 54 

Microsomia  in  mosquitoes 16-17 

plants  and  animals 16-17 

Midge  larva?,  food  of  fishes 67 

' '  Millions. ' '     (See  Girardinus  posciloides.) 
Mimms  Culicide.     (See  Culicide,  Mimms.) 
Minnow,  mud.     (See  Umbra.) 

Mollinesia,  introduction  into  Hawaii  to  abate  mosquitoes 68-69 

Mosquito  bites,  canopies  and  screens  as  protection 14-18 

gloves  as  protection 14 

netting  as  protection 15, 17-18 

protection  therefrom 12-19 

protective  liquids 12-14 

remedies 41-42 

screens  and  canopies  as  protection 14-18 

veils  as  protection 14, 15 

breeding  places,  abolition 19-22 

campaigns,  absurd  arguments  against  them 83-84 

along  river  fronts  in  Egypt 88 

in  Germany,  recent  work 87-88 

interesting  children  in  San  Antonio,  Tex 86-87 

Worcester,  Mass 11,  86 

motto 85 

organization 80-88 

summary  of  methods 85 

objects 85 

Extermination  Society,  papers  read  at  conventions 111-112 

exterminative  measures  in  Algeria 98-99 

Federated  Malay  States 89-92 

Habana,  1901-2 92-93 

Ismailia 100 

Isthmus  of  Panama 93-95 

Italy 104 

other  parts  of  the  world 104-113 

Rio  de  Janeiro 95-98 

United  States 105-113 

Veracruz 100-101 

larvicide,  properties  of  the  ideal  substance 72-73,  78 

larvae,  destruction 72-80 

of  certain  kinds  occurring  in  waters  well  covered  by  duck- 
weeds          30 

nettings.     (See  Nettings.) 

problem  in  India 104-105 

yellow  fever  (see  also  A'edes  calopus  and  Stegomyia  fasciata) . 

in  Hawaii 113 

Lutzia  bigotii  an  enemy 63 

protective   liquids   applied   at  night  not  effective  as 

repellents 13 


INDEX.  123 

Page. 

Mosquitoes  and  fish 63-72 

Mr.  Thibault's  observations  on  normal  relation 72 

malaria,  experimental  and  protective  measures  in  Japan 102-104 

in  Algeria 98-99 

Chaptico,  Md 110 

China 103 

Cuba 103-104 

Cyprus 65 

Federated  Malay  States 89-92 

Formosa 102-103 

Habana,  1900-1907 93 

India 104-105 

Ismailia 100 

Italy 104 

Japan 102-104 

Japanese  army 102-104 

Leipzig,  Germany 87 

Mauritius 114-115 

Panama 94 

small  town  near  New  York  City 109-110 

Staten  Island 107-109 

United  States 105-111 

yellow  fever  in  Habana 92-93 

Isthmus  of  Panama 94-95 

Rio  de  Janeiro 95-98 

Veracruz 100-101 

apparatus  for  catching  adults 40-41 

deterrent  trees  and  plants 22-30 

drainage  measures  in  control 42-53 

fumigants  and  smudges 30-40 

household  species,  breeding  places 19-22 

natural  enemies,  their  practical  use 62-72 

of  New  Jersey,  salt-marsh  species  in  different  parts  of  the  State 51 

organization  for  community  work  against  them 80-88 

preventive  and  remedial  work,  conclusion 114-115 

introduction 7-12 

protection  from  bites 12-19 

protective  liquids  against  them 12-14 

remedies  for  bites 41-42 

screening  breeding  places 18-19 

smudges  and  fumigants 30-40 

Mutton  tallow,  black  tar,  oil  of  citronella,  and  pennyroyal  as  protection  against 

mosquitoes  and  black  flies 13 

Naphthaline  as  remedy  for  bites  of  mosquitoes,  other  Diptera,  and  fleas 41 

National  Drainage  Association 112 

Nettings  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 15, 17-18 

Netting,  size  of  mesh  with  reference  to  mosquitoes 17 

New  Jersey,  act  to  provide  for  abolishing  mosquito-breeding  places 48-50 

drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 47-53, 113 

fish  introduced  to  destroy  mosquitoes 67-68 

salt-marsh  lands,  value  before  and  after  reclamation 59-62 

New  Orleans,  swamp  lands 55 

York,  marshes  in  vicinity 55 


124     PREVENTIVE   AND   REMEDIAL   WORK   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

*  Page. 

Newport,  R.  I.,  mosquito  exterminative  measures Ill 

North  Shore  Improvement  Association,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes  43,  111 

mosquito  campaign 80-81,  84-86 

Ocimum  minimum 26 

viride  as  deterrent  against  mosquitoes 26 

Ohio,  reclaimed  swamp  lands 54 

Oil,  crude.    (See  Kerosene.) 

Orange  peel,  dried,  as  smudge  against  mosquitoes 38 

Oscillatoria,  deterrent  effect  on  breeding  of  mosquitoes 29 

Oyster  Bay,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 43 

Panama,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 93-95 

larvicide 79, 80 

Pans  in  poultry  yard,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19 

Pawpaw  plant  as  deterrent  against  mosquitoes 24, 25 

Peat  as  deterrent  against  mosquitoes 27 

Pennyroyal,  mutton  tallow,  black  tar,  and  citronella  as  protection  against  mos- 
quitoes and  black  flies 13 

oil,  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

Peppermint,  oil,  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

Perch,  pirate.    (See  Aphredoderus.) 

"Perch, "  used  to  destroy  mosquito  larvae  in  water  tanks 63 

Permanganate  of  potash,  impractical  mosquito  larvicide 73 

Persian  insect  powder.     (See  Pyre  thrum  powder.) 
Petroleum.     (See  Kerosene.) 

saponated,  and  iodin,  as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites  and  wasp  stings.        42 

Phinotas  oil  as  mosquito  larvicide 74,  77-78 

"  Phu-lo  "  plant,  reported  as  repellent  to  mosquitoes 25-26 

1 '  Phul ' '  plant 26 

Pipes,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

Pitchers,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes '20 

Plants  and  trees  reported  as  deterrent  against  mosquitoes 22-30 

Pceciliidae.     (See  Top-minnows.) 

Ponds,  ornamental,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 21 

Port  Swettenham.     (See  Federated  Malay  States.) 
Potassium  permanganate.     (See  Permanganate  of  potash.) 

sulphate.     (See  Sulphate  of  potash.) 

Psorophora,  enemies  of  other  mosquitoes 62-63 

Puget  Sound,  tide  marsh  reclamation 54 

Pumpkinseed.     (See  Sunfish,  common.) 

Pyrethrum  cinerarisefolium,  cultivation 30-31 

powder,  as  smudge  against  mosquitoes 30-32 

roseum,  cultivation 30 

Pyrofume  as  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 34-35 

Rain-water  barrels  and  tanks,  screening  against  mosquitoes 18-19 

Reclaimed  swamp  lands,  value 53-62 

Reclamation  work  of  United  States  Government 55 

Remedies  for  mosquito  bites 41-42 

Resin,  carbolic  acid,  and  caustic  soda  as  mosquito  larvicide 79 

Ricinus  communis.     (See  Castor-oil  plant.) 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 95-98 

Roach,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 66 

Roof  gutters,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19 

Salamanders,  enemies  of  mosquitoes 62 


INDEX.  125 

Page. 

Salt  as  mosquito  larvicide 78-79 

marsh  lands  in  New  Jersey,  value  before  and  after  reclamation 59-62 

Screening,  annual  cost  in  United  States 14 

breeding  places  against  mosquitoes 18-19 

Screens  and  canopies  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 14-18 

size  of  mesh  with  especial  reference  to  yellow  fever  mosquito 16-17 

' '  Seasonal  lethargy  " 17 

Sewer  catch-basins,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 21-22 

traps,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

Sheepshead  Bay,  reclamation  of  salt  marsh 55 

Shiner.     (See  Roach.) 

Smudges  against  mosquitoes 30-40 

Soap,  moist,  as  remedy  for  mosquito  bites 41 

South  Orange,  N.  J.,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 82, 106 

Staten  Island,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 47 

mosquito  exterminative  measures 107-109 

Stegomyiafasciata  (see  also  Aides  calopus  and  Mosquito,  yellow  fever). 

along  river  fronts  in  Egypt 88 

as  affected  by  fumigation  with  Mimms  Culicide 34 

dwarf  individuals,  how  caused 16-17 

Sticklebacks,  enemies  of  mosquitoes 63,  66 

Stratford,  Conn.,  drainage  measures  against  mosquitoes 42 

Sulphate  of  copper.     (See  Copper  sulphate.) 

potash  solution  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 13 

Sulphur  dioxid  as  fumigant  against  mosquitoes 35-37 

Sunfish,  black-banded.     (See  Mesogonistius  chsetodon.) 

common,  enemy  of  mosquitoes , 63 

species  that  destroy  mosquitoes 66,  67 

Swamp  and  overflowed  lands  of  the  United  States,  area,  present  and  potential 

value,  and  cost  of  drainage 56-58 

lands  near  Milan,  Italy,  reclamation  and  benefits  therefrom 59 

their  value  when  reclaimed 53-62 

Swamps,  drainage  in  control  of  mosquitoes 42-53 

Tanks  in  water-closets,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

rain-water,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19 

screening  against  mosquitoes 18-19 

supplying  water  to  bath  rooms  in  country  houses,  breeding  places  of 

mosquitoes 21 

Tar,  black,  mutton  tallow,  oil  of  citronella,  and  pennyroyal  as  protective  liquid 

against  mosquitoes  and  black  flies 13 

oil,  as  protection  against  mosquito  bites 12 

Thibault,  James  K.,  jr.,  observations  on  normal  relation  between  mosquitoes 

and  fish 72 

Top-minnows,  enemies  of  mosquitoes 63-64,  66-67,  68-70 

Trap  for  catching  adult  mosquitoes 40-41 

Trees  and  plants  reported  as  deterrent  to  mosquitoes 22-30 

Troughs  of    underground-conduit    electric    railways,    suggested    as    breeding 

places  of  mosquitoes 22 

water.     (See  Water  troughs.) 

Umbra,  enemy  of  mosquitoes 66 

United  States,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 105-113 

mosquitoes  and  malaria 105-111 

swamp  and  overflowed  lands,  area,  present  and  potential  value, 
and  cost  of  drainage 56-58 


126     PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL   WORK  AGAINST   MOSQUITOES. 

Page 

Urns  in  cemeteries,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

Vaseline  and  citronella  as  protection  against  mosquito  bites 13 

Vases,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

Veils  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 14-15 

Veracruz,  mosquito  exterminative  measures 100-101 

Verbascum.     (Sec  "Phul"  plant.) 

Vinegar  as  protection  from  mosquito  bites 12 

Washington  State,  reclaimed  swamp  lands 54 

Washstands,   stationary,   breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

Wasp  stings,  iodin  and  saponated  petroleum  as  remedy 42 

Water  accumulations  under  water  tanks,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

cup  of  grindstone,  breeding  place  of  mosquitoes 19-20 

plants  deterrent  to  mosquito  larvae 27-30 

troughs  for  domestic  animals,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 19 

Wells,  disused,  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 20 

West  Indies,  fish  destructive  to  mosquitoes 69-70 

WThitney,  Milton,  statement  as  to  value  of  swamp  lands 54-55 

Wisconsin,  reclaimed  swamp  lands 54 

Yellow  fever  and  mosquitoes  in  Habana 92-93 

Isthmus  of  Panama 94-95 

Rio  de  Janeiro 95-98 

Veracruz 100-101 

in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  measures  of  supression 96-98 

mortality  therefrom,  1872-1909 98 

mosquito.     (See    Mosquito,    yellow    fever,    A'edes    calopus,    and 
Stegomyia  fasciata . ) 

periodicity 17 

use  of  sulphur  dioxid  in  disinfection 37 

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